If sufficient runway length is available, a “rolling” takeoff may be made without stopping at the end of the runway. Using this
procedure, as the airplane rolls onto the runway, the thrust levers should be smoothly advanced to the recommended intermediate
power setting and the engines allowed to stabilize, and then proceed as in the static takeoff outlined above. Rolling takeoffs can also
be made from the end of the runway by advancing the thrust levers from idle as the brakes are released.
During the takeoff roll, the pilot flying should concentrate on directional control of the airplane. This is made somewhat easier
because there is no torque-produced yawing in a jet as there is in a propeller-driven airplane. The airplane should be maintained
exactly on centerline with the wings level. This automatically aids the pilot when contending with an engine failure. If a crosswind
exists, the wings should be kept level by displacing the control wheel into the crosswind. During the takeoff roll, the primary
responsibility of the pilot not flying is to closely monitor the aircraft systems and to call out the proper V speeds as directed in the
captain’s briefing.
Slight forward pressure should be held on the control column to keep the nose-wheel rolling firmly on the runway. If nose-
wheel steering is being utilized, the pilot flying should monitor the nose-wheel steering to about 80 knots (or V MCG for the
particular airplane) while the pilot not flying applies the forward pressure. After reaching V MCG, the pilot flying should bring his
or her left hand up to the control wheel. The pilot’s other hand should be on the thrust levers until at least V 1 speed is attained.
Although the pilot not flying maintains a check on the engine instruments throughout the takeoff roll, the pilot flying (pilot-i n-
command) makes the decision to continue or reject a takeoff for any reason. A decision to reject a takeoff requires immediate
retarding of thrust levers.
The takeoff and climb-out should be accomplished in accordance with a standard takeoff and departure profile developed for the
particular make and model airplane. [Figure 16-13]
Figure 16-13. Sample takeoff and departure profile.
The pilot not flying should call out V 1. After passing V 1 speed on the takeoff roll, it is no longer mandatory for the pilot flying to
keep a hand on the thrust levers. The point for abort has passed, and both hands may be placed on the control wheel. As the airspeed
approaches VR, the control column should be moved to a neutral position. As the pre-computed V R speed is attained, the pilot not
flying should make the appropriate call-out, and the pilot flying should smoothly rotate the airplane to the appropriate takeoff pitch
attitude.
Rejected Takeoff
Every takeoff could potentially result in a rejected takeoff (RTO) for a variety of reasons: engine failure, fire or smoke, unsuspected
equipment on the runway, bird strike, blown tires, direct instructions from the governing ATC authority, or recognition of a
significant abnormality (split-airspeed indications, activation of a warning horn, etc.).
Ill-advised rejected takeoff decisions by flight crews and improper pilot technique during the execution of a rejected takeoff
contribute to a majority of takeoff-related commercial aviation accidents worldwide. Statistically, although only 2 percent of rejected
takeoffs are in this category, high-speed aborts above 120 knots account for the vast majority of RTO overrun accidents. A brief
moment of indecision may mean the difference between running out of runway and coming to a safe halt after an aborted takeoff.
It is paramount to remember that FAA-approved takeoff data for any aircraft is based on aircraft performance demonstrated in ideal
conditions, using a clean, dry runway, and maximum braking (reverse thrust is not used to compute stopping distance). In reality,
stopping performance can be degraded by an array of factors as diversified as:
⦁ Reduced runway friction (grooved/non-grooved)
⦁ Mechanical runway contaminants (rubber, oily residue, debris)
⦁ Natural contaminants (standing water, snow, slush, ice, dust)
⦁ Wind direction and velocity
⦁ Low air density
⦁ Flap configuration
⦁ Bleed air configuration
⦁ Underinflated or failing tires
⦁ Penalizing MEL or CDL items
⦁ Deficient wheel brakes or RTO auto-brakes
⦁ Inoperative anti-skid
⦁ Pilot technique and individual proficiency
Taking pilot response times into account, the go/no-go decision should be made before V 1 so that deceleration can begin no later than
V1. If braking has not begun by V 1, the decision to continue the takeoff is made by default. Delaying the RTO maneuver by just one
second beyond V1 increases the speed 4 to 6 knots on average. Knowing that crews require 3 to 7 seconds to identify an impending
RTO and execute the maneuver, it stands to reason that a decision should be made prior to V 1 in order to ensure a successful outcome
of the rejected takeoff. This prompted the FAA to expand on the regulatory definition of V 1 and to introduce a couple of new terms
through the publication of Advisory Circular (AC) 120-62, “Takeoff Safety Training Aid.”
The expanded definition of V1 is as follows:
a.) V1—the speed selected for each takeoff, based upon approved performance data and specified conditions,
which represents:
1.) The maximum speed by which a rejected takeoff assures that a safe stop can be completed within the
remaining runway or runway and stopway;
2.) The minimum speed which assures that a takeoff can be safely completed within the remaining
unway, or runway and clearway, after failure of the most critical engine at the designated speed; and
3.) The single speed which permits a successful stop or continued takeoff when operating at the
inimum allowable field length for a particular weight.
b.) Minimum V1—the minimum permissible V1 speed for the reference conditions from which the
takeoff can be safely completed from a given runway, or runway and clearway, after the critical
engine had failed at the designated speed.
c.) Maximum V1—the maximum possible V1 speed for the reference conditions at which a rejected
takeoff can be initiated and the airplane stopped within the remaining runway, or runway and
stopway.
d.) Reduced V1—a V1 less than maximum V1 or the normal V1, but more than the minimum V1,
selected to reduce the RTO stopping distance required.
The main purpose for using a reduced V1 is to properly adjust the RTO stopping distance in light of the degraded stopping capability
associated with wet or contaminated runways, while adding approximately 2 seconds of recognition time for the crew.
Most aircraft manufacturers recommend that operators identify a “low-speed” regime (i.e., 80 knots and below) and a “high-speed”
regime (i.e., 100 knots and above) of the takeoff run. In the “low-speed” regime, pilots should abort takeoff for any malfunction or
abnormality (actual or suspected). In the “high-speed” regime, takeoff should only be rejected because of catastrophic malfunctions
or life-threatening situations. Pilots should weigh the threat against the risk of overshooting the runway during an RTO maneuver.
Standard operating procedures (SOPs) should be tailored to include a speed call-out during the transition from low-speed to high-
speed regime, the timing of which serves to remind pilots of the impending critical window of decision-making, to provide them with
a last opportunity to crosscheck their instruments, to verify their airspeed, and to confirm that adequate takeoff thrust is set, while at
the same time performing a pilot incapacitation check through the “challenge and response” ritual.
Brakes provide the most effective stopping force, but experience has shown that the initial tendency of a flight crew is to use normal
after-landing braking during a rejected takeoff. Delaying the intervention of the primary deceleration force during an RTO maneuver ,
when every second counts, increases stopping distance. Instead of braking after the throttles are retarded and the spoilers are
deployed (normal landing), pilots should apply maximum braking immediately while simultaneously retarding the throttles, with
spoiler extension and thrust reverser deployment following in short sequence. Differential braking applied to maintain directional
control also diminishes the effectiveness of the brakes. A blown tire will eliminate any kind of braking action on that particular tire,
and could also lead to the failure of adjacent tires.
In order to better assist flight crews in making a split-second go/no-go decision during a high-speed takeoff run, and avoid an
unnecessary high-speed RTO, some commercial aircraft manufacturers have gone as far as inhibiting aural or visual malfunction
warnings of non-critical equipment beyond a preset speed. The purpose is to prevent an overreaction by the crew and a tendency to
select a risky high-speed RTO maneuver over a safer takeoff with a non-critical malfunction. Indeed, the successful outcome of a
rejected takeoff, one that concludes without damage or injury, may be influenced by equipment characteristics.
In summary, a rejected takeoff should be perceived as an emergency. RTO safety could be vastly improved by:
⦁ Developing SOPs aiming to advance the expanded FAA definitions of takeoff decision speed and
their practical application, including the use of progressive callouts to identify transition from low-speed
to high-speed regime.
⦁ Promoting recognition of emergency versus abnormal situations through enhanced CRM training.
⦁ Encouraging crews to carefully consider factors that may affect or even compromise available performance data.
⦁ Expanding practical training in the proper use of brakes, throttles, spoilers, and reverse thrust during RTO
demonstrations.
⦁ Encouraging aircraft manufacturers to eliminate non-critical malfunction warnings during the takeoff roll at
preset speeds.
Rotation and Lift-Off
Rotation and lift-off in a jet airplane requires planning, precision, and a fine control touch. The objective is to initiate the rotation to
takeoff pitch attitude exactly at V R so that the airplane accelerates through V LOF and attains V2 speed at 35 feet AGL. Rotation to the
proper takeoff attitude too soon may extend the takeoff roll or cause an early lift-off, which results in a lower rate of climb and a
divergence from the predicted flightpath. A late rotation, on the other hand, results in a longer takeoff roll, exceeding V 2 speed, and a
takeoff and climb path below the predicted path.
Each airplane has its own specific takeoff pitch attitude that remains constant regardless of weight. The takeoff pitch attitude in a jet
airplane is normally between 10° and 15° nose up. The rotation to takeoff pitch attitude should be made smoothly but deliberately and
at a constant rate. Depending on the particular airplane, the pilot should plan on a rate of pitch attitude increase of approximately 2.5°
to 3° per second.
In training, it is common for the pilot to overshoot V R and then overshoot V 2 because the pilot not flying calls for rotation at or just
past VR. The pilot flying may visually verify V R and then rotate late. If the airplane leaves the ground at or above V 2, the excess
airspeed may be of little concern on a normal takeoff. However, a delayed rotation can be critical when runway length or obstacle
clearance is limited. On some airplanes, the rapidly increasing airspeed may cause the achieved flightpath to fall below the engine-out
scheduled flightpath unless flying correct speeds. Rotation at the right speed and rate to the right attitude gets the airplane off the
ground at the right speed and within the right distance.
Initial Climb
Once the proper pitch attitude is attained, the pilot should maintain it. Takeoff power is also maintained and the airspeed allowed to
accelerate. Landing gear retraction should be accomplished after a positive rate of climb has been established and confirmed. In some
airplanes gear retraction may temporarily increase the airplane drag while landing gear doors open. Premature gear retraction may
cause the airplane to settle back toward the runway surface. In addition, the vertical speed indicator and the altimeter may not show a
positive climb until the airplane is 35 to 50 feet above the runway due to ground effect.
The pilot should hold the climb pitch attitude as the airplane accelerates to flap retraction speed. However, the flaps should not be
retracted until obstruction clearance altitude or 400 feet AGL has been passed. Ground effect and landing gear drag reduction result
in rapid acceleration during this phase of the takeoff and climb. Airspeed, altitude, climb rate, attitude, and heading should be
monitored carefully. As the airplane develops a steady climb, longitudinal stick forces can be trimmed out. If making a power
reduction, the pilot should reduce the pitch attitude simultaneously if needed and monitor the airplane airspeed and rate of climb so as
to preclude an inadvertent reduction in desired performance or a descent.
Speed is limited to 250 KIAS below 10,000 feet MSL in the United States unless otherwise authorized by the Administrator (14
CFR part 91, section 91.117(a)). At or above that altitude, the best rate of climb speed is published in the AFM. If asked to increase
rate of climb, increasing pitch slightly will have the desired effect as airspeed bleeds off. If the airplane slows to L/D MAX, the
airplane is at its best angle of climb speed, but the rate of climb is less than it was at best rate of climb speed. Trading airspeed for
altitude and a temporary increased rate of climb is referred to as a “zoom climb.” This type of climb provides an increased rate of
climb for a few thousand feet, but it ultimately reduces overall climb performance.
Jet Airplane Descent and Approach
The smoothest and most fuel-efficient descent would be to reduce power to flight idle and slow to L/D MAX. In this scenario, the
pilot would descend, level off to decelerate, configure for landing, intercept the final approach, and continue a gradual de celeration
until setting power for a stabilized descent on final. Traffic and time considerations almost always require deviation from this
example, and the typical descent profile has three descent segments with two speed reductions in between.
Descent Planning
For a typical idle power descent, the top of descent (TOD), point A in figure 16-14, is determined by altitude, adjusted for wind. Jet
descent profiles normally approximate a 3 degree path, with some time/distance required for deceleration in level flight. While exact
distances will vary, having a descent plan will put the pilot well ahead of the jet and in a better position to monitor the automation.
Figure 16-14. Typical descent profile.
For a straight-in VFR approach to an airport without factoring wind, an estimate for TOD may be calculated by multiplying the
planned descent (in thousands of feet) by 3 and adding any distance needed for speed reductions in level flight (losing about 10 KIAS
per mile when level). If flying at 35,000 feet above airport elevation, a cruise descent would start approximately 120 miles from the
airport (35 times 3, plus about 15 miles for speed reduction, in stages, from cruise speed in this example). [Figure 16-14] Normally,
cruise Mach is maintained until increasing air density causes indicated airspeed to increase to the desired descent speed, which
usually occurs just below 30,000 feet. If arriving at point B at 10,000 feet MSL about 40 miles from the airport for deceleration to
250 knots, the pilot would resume a descent about 35 miles from the airport, continuing to 1,500 feet about 15 miles from the runway.
The approach would continue with deceleration and flap extension so as to start the final descent 5 miles from the runway. There, the
pilot extends the landing gear and selects landing flaps by 1,000 feet AGL, and brings the power up by 500 feet AGL to maintain the
appropriate speed for a stabilized approach.
Variables that affect the TOD calculation include:
⦁ Head/tail wind component (adjust distance 1 mile for each 10 knots of wind at cruise altitude),
⦁ Field elevation,
⦁ Terrain considerations,
⦁ Runway alignment on arrival,
⦁ ATC vectors and speed restrictions,
⦁ Type of approach.
Descent Energy Management
While descending, the pilot can check the progress periodically. Estimating using round numbers keeps the calculation simple.
Passing 25,000 feet should occur at 75 miles out plus or minus corrections; 20,000 feet should be at 60 miles, etc. If there is a
deviation from the desired altitude/distance target, the energy state needs to be adjusted.
As discussed in Chapter 4, Using Energy Management to Master Altitude and Airspeed Control , there are two forms of energy in an
airplane: potential energy in the form of altitude, and kinetic energy in the form of speed. In the normal operating regime at speeds
above L/DMAX, increasing speed increases total drag, while a decreasing speed will decrease total drag.
At idle power and at speeds above L/D MAX, increasing speed increases the rate of descent. Sample data for a particular make and
model might look like the following:
⦁ 210 KIAS = 1,000 feet per minute
⦁ 250 KIAS = 1,500 feet per minute
⦁ 300 KIAS = 3,000 feet per minute
The exponential increase in parasite drag at higher speeds has a significant impact on both the rate of descent and the descent angle.
Using the sample numbers, a 20% increase in airspeed from 210 to 250 knots, results in a 50% increase in the descent rate. However,
a 20% increase in airspeed from 250 to 300 knots results in a 100% increase in the descent rate. Therefore, when at a higher altitude
than desired in a descent, lowering the nose to increase speed will increase the descent angle and get the aircraft back to the desired
path. Conversely, if lower than planned in descent, raising the nose to decrease speed will reduce descent angle until back on the
desired path. Often, just a 10-knot change in speed allows for a smooth and gradual correction.
If speed adjustment is not an option, power can be added to correct a low-energy state, or the speed brakes used to correct a high-
energy state. Numerous power fluctuations or repeated deployment and stowing of speed brakes is an indication of either pilot failure
to adequately plan and/or manage the descent, or a poorly designed arrival procedure.
If a different descent speed from that planned is used during a descent, an adjustment should be made to the top of descent point. If
ahead of schedule, leaving cruise altitude sooner, setting flight idle, and descending at a slower speed will burn less fuel. Conversely,
if running late and willing to burn some extra fuel, the pilot can leave cruise later and descend at a higher speed. In all cases, the pilot
should check progress during the descent and continue to adjust as necessary.
Planned descent speed will affect the position of the planned top of descent point. [Figure 16-15] In this example, both jets fly past
point X at the same cruise speed and altitude with plans to arrive at point Y at 10,000 feet and 250 knots. In both cases, the aircraft
would then be in a position to set up a continued descent. The 250-knot descent requires a few miles for deceleration and gives a
shallower descent path. The 300-knot descent allows staying at altitude longer, descending at a steeper angle, and then leveling off to
slow to 250 knots. The jet that descended at 300 knots arrives first at point Y but burns more fuel. While not depicted, an inefficient
descent plan would start the descent at point X, maintain 300 knots, and require power to maintain that airspeed on a shallow descent
path.
Figure 16-15. Effect of speed on descent path.
Descending prior to the planned TOD point will increase time to destination and fuel consumption. When given a descent clearance
prior to the planned TOD, it is acceptable to ask ATC if the descent can be done at the pilot’s discretion. If authorized to do so, this
option allows for maintaining speed and altitude until reaching the calculated top of descent point. If an immediate descent is
required, a descent at 1,000 feet per minute is usually acceptable until reaching the desired path. If a descent clearance has not been
received by the planned TOD point, a speed reduction will reduce the airplane's kinetic and total energy while potential energy
remains constant. When the clearance is received, a slightly steeper descent at the onset allows for a desired increase in kinetic energy
at the expense of altitude and an appropriate descent rate such that the airplane follows the steeper desired path with acceptable
energy distribution.
Jet Engine Landing
14 CFR part 25, section 25.125 defines the horizontal distance needed in order to land a jet airplane. The regulation describes the
landing profile as the horizontal distance required to land and come to a complete stop from a point 50 feet above the landing
surface. Manufacturers determine the landing distance on a dry, level runway at standard temperatures without using thrust
reversers, auto brakes, or auto-land systems as a baseline. The pilot uses the landing weight and environmental conditions to
determine the actual expected landing requirement based on the FAA-approved data in the AFM. As an accepted safety practice,
pilots normally add a 40% cushion for landing on a dry runway. Dividing the usable runway length by 1.67 should give a number
equal to or greater than the landing distance calculated from AFM data. For a wet runway, the distance should be increased by an
additional 15%. [Figure 16-16]
Figure 16-16. FAR landing field length required.