Hand propping requires a team of two properly trained people. Both individuals should be familiar with the airplane and hand
propping techniques. The first person is responsible for directing the procedure including pulling the propeller blades through. The
second person sits in the airplane to ensure that the brakes are set and to exercise controls as directed by the person pulling the
propeller. When hand propping occurs, a person unfamiliar with the controls should never occupy the pilot’s seat.
When hand propping is necessary, the ground surface near the propeller should be stable and free of debris. Loose gravel, wet grass,
grease, mud, oil, ice, or snow might cause the person pulling the propeller through to slip into the rotating blades as the engine starts.
Unless a firm footing is available, relocate the airplane to mitigate this hazardous consequence.
Both participants should discuss the procedure and agree on voice commands and expected actions. To begin the procedure, the fuel
system and engine controls (tank selector, primer, pump, throttle, and mixture) are set for normal start. The ignition/magneto switch
should be checked to be sure that it is OFF. Then, the descending propeller blade should be rotated so that it assumes a
position slightly above the horizontal. The person doing the hand propping should face the descending blade squarely and stand
slightly less than one arm’s length from the blade. If a stance too far away were assumed, it would be necessary to lean forward in an
unbalanced condition to reach the blade, which may cause the person to fall forward into the rotating blades when the engine
starts. Allowing space for the person to be able to step away as the propeller is pulled down, and the engine starts, serves as
safeguard in case the brakes fail.
The procedure and commands for hand propping are:
⦁ Person out front says, “FUEL ON, SWITCH OFF, THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET.”
⦁ Pilot seat occupant, after making sure the fuel is ON, mixture is RICH, magneto switch is OFF, throttle is
CLOSED, an d brakes are SET, says, “FUEL ON, SWITCH OFF, THROTTLE CLOSED, BRAKES SET.”
⦁ Person o ut front, after pulling the propeller through to prime the engine says, “BRAKES AND CONTACT.”
⦁ Pilot seat occupant checks th e brakes SET and turns the magnetos switch ON, then says, “BRAKES AND
CONTACT.”
The words CONTACT (magnetos ON) and SWITCH OFF (magnetos OFF) are used because they are significantly different from
each other. Under noisy conditions or high winds, the words CONTACT and SWITCH OFF are less likely to be misunderstood than
SWITCH ON and SWITCH OFF.
The propeller is swung by forcing the blade downward rapidly, pushing with the palms of both hands. If the blade is gripped tightly
with the fingers, the person’s body may be drawn into the propeller blades should the engine misfire, "kickback," or rotate
momentarily in the opposite direction. As the blade is pushed down, the person should step backward, away from the propeller. If the
engine does not start, the propeller should not be repositioned for another attempt until it is verified that the magneto switch is turned
OFF. Excessive throttle opening after the engine has fired is the principal cause of backfiring during starting. Gradual opening of the
throttle, while the engine is cold, reduces the potential for backfiring. Slow, smooth movement of the throttle assures correct engine
operation.
Immediately after the engine starts, check the oil pressure indicator. If oil pressure does not show within 30 seconds, stop the engine
and determine the trouble. If oil pressure is indicated, adjust the throttle to the aircraft manufacturer’s specified rpm for engine
warmup, which is usually between 1,000 to 1,300 rpm.
Most aircraft reciprocating engines are air-cooled and depend on the forward speed of the aircraft to maintain proper cooling.
Therefore, particular care is necessary when operating these engines on the ground. During all ground running, operate the engine
with the propeller in full low pitch and headed into the wind with the cowling installed to provide the best degree of engine cooling.
Closely monitor the engine instruments at all times. Do not close the cowl flaps for engine warm-up, they need to be in the open
position while operating on the ground. When warming up the engine, ensure that personnel, ground equipment that may be damaged,
or other aircraft are not in the propeller wash.
When removing the wheel chocks or untying the tail after the engine starts, everyone involved should remember that the propeller is
nearly invisible. Serious injuries and fatalities have occurred when people who have just started an engine walk or reach into the
propeller arc to remove the chocks, reach the cabin, or when moving toward the tail of the airplane. Before the wheel chocks are
removed, the throttle should be set to idle and the chocks approached only from the rear of the propeller. One should never approach
the wheel chocks from the front or the side.
Taxiing
Taxiing is the controlled movement of the airplane under its own power while on the surface. Since an airplane is moved under its
own power between a parking area and the runway, the pilot needs to understand and be proficient in taxi procedures.
A pilot should maintain situational awareness of the ramp, parking areas, taxiways, runway environment, and the persons, equipment
and aircraft at all times. Without such awareness, safety may be compromised. Depending on the airport, the parking, ramp, an d
taxiways may or may not be controlled. As such, it is important that the pilot completely understands the operating environment. At
small, rural airports these areas may be desolate with few aircraft and limited hazards; however, as the complexity of the airport
increases so does the potential for hazards. Regardless of the complexity, some generally accepted procedures are appropriate.
⦁ The pilot should be familiar with the parking, ramp, and taxi environment. This can be done by having an
airport diagram, if available, out and in view at all times. [Figure 2-14]
Figure 2-14. Airport Diagram of Monterey Peninsula (MRY), Monterey, California.
⦁ Despite having familiarity with the airport, pilots should carefully review their complete taxi plan. For
example, a pilot given the same taxi instructions by ATC, starts expecting those same instructions and
might not realize that those instructions no longer apply. It only takes missing one instruction or turn to
generate an accident. It is a human tendency to follow the same procedure over and over. This expectation
bias has occurred to many pilots who did not stop and carefully consider and evaluate their taxi instructions.
⦁ The pilot should be vigilant of the entire area around the airplane to ensure that the airplane clears all
obstructions. If, at any time, there is doubt about a safe clearance from an object, the pilot should stop the
airplane and check the clearance. It may be necessary to have the airplane towed or physically moved by a
ground crew.
⦁ When taxiing, the pilot’s eyes should be looking outside the airplane scanning from side to side while
looking both near and far to assess routing and potential conflicts.
⦁ A safe taxiing speed should be maintained. The primary requirements for safe taxiing are positive control,
the ability to recognize any potential hazards in time to avoid them, and the ability to stop or turn where and
when desired, without undue reliance on the brakes. Pilots should proceed at a cautious speed on congested
or busy ramps. Normally, the speed should be at the rate where movement of the airplane is dependent on
the throttle. That is, slow enough so when the throttle is closed, the airplane can be stopped promptly.
⦁ The pilot should place the aircraft on the taxiway center. Some taxiways have above-ground taxi lights and
signage that could impact the airplane or propellers if the pilot does not exercise accurate control. When
yellow taxiway centerline stripes are present, the pilot should visually place the centerline stripe so it is
under the center of the airplane fuselage.
⦁ When taxiing, the pilot should slow down before attempting a turn. Sharp high-speed turns place undesirable
side loads on the landing gear and may result in tire damage or an uncontrollable swerve or a ground loop.
Swerves are most likely to occur when turning from a downwind heading toward an upwind heading. In
moderate to high-wind conditions, the airplane may weathervane increasing the swerving tendency.
Steering is accomplished with rudder pedals and brakes. To turn the airplane on the ground, the pilot should apply the rudder in the
desired direction of turn and use the appropriate power or brake to control the taxi speed. The rudder pedal should be held in the
direction of the turn until just short of the point where the turn is to be stopped. Rudder pressure is then released or opposite pressure
is applied as needed.
More engine power may be required to start the airplane moving forward, or to start a turn, than is required to keep it moving in any
given direction. When using additional power, the throttle should immediately be retarded once the airplane begins moving to prevent
excessive acceleration.
The brakes should be tested for proper operation as soon as the airplane is put in motion. Applying power to start the airpl ane moving
forward slowly, then retarding the throttle and simultaneously applying just enough pressure to one side, then the other to confirm
proper function and reaction of both brakes. This is best if the airplane has individual left/right brakes to stop the airplane. If braking
performance is unsatisfactory, the engine should be shut down immediately.
When taxiin g at appropr iate speed s in no-win d conditions , th e ailero n an d elevato r contro l surfac es hav e litt le o r n o effec t on
directional control of the airplane. These controls should not be considered steering devices and should be held in a neutral position.
When taxiing with a quartering headwind, the wing on the upwind side (the side that the wind is coming from) tends to be lifted by
the wind unless the aileron control is held in that direction (upwind aileron UP). Moving the aileron into the UP position reduces the
effect of the wind striking that wing, thus reducing the lifting action. This control movement also causes the downwind aileron to be
placed in the DOWN position, thus a small amount of lift and drag on the downwind wing, further reducing the tendency of
the upwind wing to rise. [Figure 2-15]
When taxiing with a quartering tailwind, the elevator should be held in the DOWN position, and the upwind aileron, DOWN. Sinc e
the wind is striking the airplane from behind, these control positions reduce the tendency of the wind to get under the tail and the
wing and to nose the airplane over. The application of these crosswind taxi corrections helps to minimize the weathervaning tendency
and ultimately results in easier steering. [Figure 2-15]
The presence of moderate to strong headwinds and/or a strong propeller slipstream creates lift on the horizontal tail surfaces
and makes it necessary to control the pitch attitude while taxiing. The elevator control in nosewheel-type airplanes should be held
in the neutral position, while in tailwheel-type airplanes, it should be held in the full aft position to hold the tail down unless
the headwind gets very strong, which allows for an elevator position closer to neutral.
Downwind taxiing usually requires less engine power after the initial ground roll has begun, since the wind is pushing the airplane
forward. To avoid overheating the brakes and controlling the airplane’s speed when taxiing downwind, the pilot should keep engine
power to a minimum. Rather than continuously riding the brakes to control speed, it is appropriate to apply brakes only occasionally.
Other than sharp turns at low speed, the throttle should always be at idle before the brakes are applied. It is a common err or to taxi
with a power setting that requires controlling taxi speed with the brakes.
Figure 2-15. Control positions of the nosewheel airplane.
Normally, all turns should be started using the rudder pedal to steer the nosewheel. To tighten the turn after full pedal deflection is
reached, the brake may be applied as needed. When stopping the airplane, it is always advisable to stop with the nosewheel straight
ahead to relieve any side load on the nosewheel and to make it easier to start moving ahead. Note that certain makes and models have
no nosewheel steering and the brakes need to be used to control any turns.
During crosswind taxiing, even the nosewheel-type airplane has some tendency to weathervane. However, the weathervaning
tendency is less than in tailwheel- type airplanes because the main wheels are located behind the airplane’s center of gravity, and the
nosewheel’s ground friction helps to resist the tendency. The nosewheel linkage from the rudder pedals provides adequate stee ring
control for safe and efficient ground handling, and normally, only rudder pressure is necessary to correct for a crosswind.
Taxiing checklists are sometimes specified by the AFM/POH, and the pilot should accomplish any items that are required. If there are
no specific checklist items, taxiing still provides an opportunity to verify the operation and cross-check of the flight instruments. In
general, the flight instruments should indicate properly with the airspeed at or near zero (depending on taxi speed, wind sp eed and
direction, and lower limit sensitivity); the attitude indicator should indicate pitch and roll level (depending on airplane attitude) with
no flags; the altimeter should indicate the proper elevation within prescribed limits; the turn indicator should show the correct
direction of turn with the ball movement toward the outside of the turn with no flags; the directional gyro should be set and crossed
checked to the magnetic compass and verified accurate to the direction of taxi; and the vertical speed indicator (VSI) should read
zero. These checks can be accomplished on conventional mechanical instrumented aircraft or those with glass displays.
Before-Takeoff Check
The before-takeoff check is the systematic AFM/POH procedure for checking the engine, controls, systems, instruments, and avionics
prior to flight. Normally, the before-takeoff checklist is performed after taxiing to a run-up position near the takeoff end of the
runway. Many engines require that the oil temperature reach a minimum value as stated in the AFM/POH before takeoff power is
applied. Taxiing to the run-up position usually allows sufficient time for the engine to warm up to at least minimum operating
temperature; however, the pilot should verify that the oil temperature is within the proper range prior to the application of high power.
A suitable location for run-up should be firm (a smooth, paved or turf surface if possible) and free of debris. Otherwise, the propeller
may pick up pebbles, dirt, mud, sand, or other loose objects and hurl them backwards. This damages the propeller and may damage
the tail of the airplane. Small chips in the leading edge of the propeller form stress risers or high stress concentrations. These are
highly undesirable and may lead to cracks and possible propeller blade failure. The airplane should also be positioned clear of other
aircraft and the taxiway. There should not be anything behind the airplane that might be damaged by the propeller airflow blasting
rearward.
Before beginning the before-takeoff check, after the airplane is properly positioned for the run-up, it should be allowed to roll
forward slightly to ensure that the nosewheel or tailwheel is in alignment with the longitudinal axis of the airplane.
While performing the before-takeoff check in accordance with the airplane’s AFM/POH, the pilot divides attention between the
inside and outside of the airplane. If the parking brake slips, or if application of the toe brakes is inadequate for the amount of power
applied, the airplane could rapidly move forward and go unnoticed if pilot attention is fixed only inside the airplane. A good
operational practice is to split attention from one item inside to a look outside.
Air-cooled engines generally are tightly cowled and equipped with baffles that direct the flow of air to the engine in sufficient
volumes for cooling while in flight; however, on the ground, much less air is forced through the cowling and around the baffling.
Prolonged ground operations may cause cylinder overheating long before there is an indication of rising oil temperature. To minimize
overheating during engine run-up, it is recommended that the airplane be headed as nearly as possible into the wind and, if equipped,
engine instruments that indicate cylinder head temperatures should be monitored. Cowl flaps, if available, should be set according to
the AFM/POH.
Each airplane has different features and equipment and the before-takeoff checklist provided in airplane’s AFM/POH should be used
to perform the run-up. Many critical systems are checked and set during the before-takeoff check. Most airplanes have at least the
following systems checked and set:
⦁ Fuel System—set per the AFM/POH and verified ON and the proper and correct fuel tanks selected.
⦁ Trim—set for takeoff position, which includes the elevator and may also include rudder and aileron trim.
⦁ Flight Controls—checked throughout their entire operating range. This includes full aileron, elevator, and
rudder deflection in all directions. Often, pilots do not exercise a full range of movement of the flight
controls, which is not acceptable.
⦁ Engine Operation—checked to ensure that temperatures and pressures are in their normal ranges; magneto
or Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) operation on single or dual ignition are acceptable and
within limits; and, if equipped, carburetor heat is functioning. If the airplane is equipped with a constant
speed or feathering propeller, that its operation is acceptable, and the engine continues to run normally as
the propeller is exercised.
⦁ Electrical System—verified to ensure voltages are within operating range and that the system shows the
battery system charging.
⦁ Vacuum System—shows an acceptable level of vacuum, which is typically between 4.8 and 5.2 inches of
mercury ("Hg) at 2,000 rpm. Refer to the AFM/POH for the manufacturer’s values. It is important to ensure
that mechanical gyroscopic instruments have adequate time to spool up to acceptable rpm in order for them to
indicate properly. A hasty and quick taxi and run-up does not allow mechanical gyroscopic instruments to
indicate properly and a departure into instrument meteorological conditions (IMC) is unadvisable.
⦁ Flight Instruments–rechecked and set for the departure. Verify that the directional gyro and the magnetic
compass are in agreement. If the directional gyro has a heading bug, it may be set to the runway heading that
is in use or as assigned by air traffic control (ATC).
⦁ Avionics–set with the appropriate frequencies, initial navigation sources and courses, autopilot preselects,
transponder codes, and other settings and configurations based on the airplane’s equipment and flight
requirements.
⦁ Takeoff Briefing–made out loud by the pilot even when no other person is there to listen. It should include
a visual verification of the correct surface and direction to preclude a wrong surface departure. A sample
takeoff briefing may be the following:
“This will be normal takeoff (use normal, short, or soft as appropriate) from runway (use runway assigned), wind is from the
(direction and speed), rotation speed is (use the specified or calculated manufacturer’s takeoff or rotation speed (V R)), an
initial turn to (use planned heading) and climb to (use initial altitude in feet). The takeoff will be rejected for engine failure
below V R, applying appropriate braking, stopping ahead. Engine failure after V R and with runway remaining, I will lower
pitch, land, and apply appropriate braking, stopping straight ahead. Engine failure after V R and with no runway remaining, I
will lower pitch to best glide speed, no turns will be made prior to (insert appropriate altitude), land in the most suitable area,
and apply appropriate braking, avoiding hazards on the ground as much as possible. I will only consider turning back to
runway __ if I have reached at least __ feet AGL, which would be __ feet MSL. If time permits, fuel, ignition, and electrical
systems will be switched off.”
Takeoff Checks
The pilot should ensure that runway numbers on paved runways agree with magnetic compass and heading indicators before
beginning takeoff roll. The last check as power is brought to full takeoff power includes:
1. Doors latched and windows closed as required?
2. Controls positioned to account for any crosswind?
3. Power correct?
4. Engine rpm normal?
5. Engine smooth?
6. Engine instruments normal and in green ranges?
After-Landing
During the after-landing roll, while maintaining airplane track over runway centerline with ailerons and heading down runway with
rudder pedals, the airplane should be gradually slowed to normal taxi speed with normal brake pressure before turning off of the
landing runway. Any significant degree of turn at faster speeds could result in subsequent damage to the landing gear, tires, brakes, or
the airplane structure.
To give full attention to controlling the airplane during the landing roll, the after-landing checklist should be performed only after the
airplane is brought to a complete stop beyond the runway holding position markings. There have been many cases where a pilot has
mistakenly manipulated the wrong handle and retracted the landing gear, instead of the flaps, due to improper division of attention
while the airplane was moving. However, this procedure may be modified if the manufacturer recommends that specific after-landing
items be accomplished during landing rollout. For example, when performing a short-field landing, the manufacturer may recommend
retracting the flaps on rollout to improve braking. In this situation, the pilot should make a positive identification of the flap control
handle before retracting the flaps.
Clear of Runway and Stopped
Because of different configurations and equipment in various airplanes, the after-landing checklist within the AFM/POH should be
used. Some of the items may include:
1. Power—set to the AFM/POH values such as throttle 1,000 rpm, propeller full forward, mixture leaned.
2. Fuel— may require switching tanks and fuel pumps switched off.
3. Flaps— set to the retracted position.
4. Cowl flaps— may be opened or closed depending on temperature conditions.
5. Trim— reset to neutral or takeoff position.
6. Lights— may be switched off if not needed, such as strobe lights.
7. Avionics— frequencies and transponder set for arrival airport taxi procedures.
Parking
Unless parking in a designated, supervised area, the pilot should select a location and heading that prevents propeller or jet blast of
other airplanes from striking the airplane unnecessarily. Whenever possible, the airplane should be parked headed into the existing or
forecast wind. Often airports have airplane tie downs located on ramp areas which may or may not be aligned with the wind or
provide a significant choice in parking location. After stopping in the desired direction, the airplane should be allowed to roll straight
ahead enough to straighten the nosewheel or tailwheel.
Engine Shutdown
The pilot should always use the procedures in the airplane’s AFM/POH shutdown checklist for shutting down the engine and securing
the airplane. Important items may include:
1. Parking Brake—set to ON.
2. Throttle— set to IDLE or 1,000 rpm.
3. If tu rbocharged, observe the manufacturer’s spool down procedure.
4. Magneto Switch Test—m omentarily check for proper grounding in the OFF position at idle rpm.
5. Propeller Control— set to HIGH rpm, if equipped.
6. Avionics— turn OFF.
7. Alternator— turn OFF.
8. Mixture— set to IDLE CUTOFF.
9. Magneto Switch— turn ignition switch to OFF when engine stops.
10. Install chocks (release parking brake in accordance w ith AFM/POH).
11. Master Switch— turn OFF.
12. Secure— install control locks and anti-theft security locks.
Post-Flight
A flight is not complete until the engine is shut down and the airplane is secured. A pilot should consider this an essential part of any
flight.
Securing and Servicing
After engine shutdown and deplaning passengers, the pilot should accomplish a post-flight inspection. This includes a walk around to
inspect the general condition of the aircraft. Inspect near and around the cowling for signs of oil or fuel streaks and around the oil
breather for excessive oil discharge. Inspect under wings and other fuel tank locations for fuel stains. Inspect landing gear and tires
for damage and brakes for any leaking hydraulic fluid. Inspect cowling inlets for obstructions.
Oil levels should be checked and quantities brought to AFM/POH levels. Fuel should be added based on the immediate use of the
airplane. If the airplane is going to be inactive, it is a good operating practice to fill the fuel tanks to prevent water condensation from
forming inside the tank. If another flight is planned, the fuel tanks should be filled based on the flight planning requirements for that
flight.
The aircraft should be hangared or tied down, flight controls secured, and security locks in place. The type of tie downs may vary
significantly from chains to well-worn ropes. Chains are not flexible and as such should not be made taut so as to allow the airplane
some movement and prevent airframe structural damage. Tie down ropes are flexible and may be reasonably cinched to the airplane’s
tie down rings. Consider utilizing pitot tube covers, cowling inlet covers, rudder gust locks, window sunscreens, and propeller
security locks to further enhance the safety and security of the airplane.
Hangaring is not without hazards to the airplane. The pilot should ensure that enough space is allocated to the airplane so it is free
from any impact to the hangar, another aircraft, or vehicle. The airplane should be inspected after hangaring to ensure that no damage
was imparted on the airplane.
Chapter Summary
This chapter places emphasis on determining the airworthiness of the airplane, preflight visual inspection, managing risk and pilot-
available resources, safe surface-based operations, and the adherence to and proper use of the AFM/POH and checklists. The pilot
should ensure that the airplane is in a safe condition for flight, and it meets all the regulatory requirements of 14 CFR part 91. A pilot
also needs to recognize that flight safety includes proper flight preparation and having the experience to manage the risks associated
with the expected conditions. An effective and continuous assessment and mitigation of the risks and appropriate utilization of
resources goes a long way provided the pilot honestly evaluates their ability to act as PIC.