SRM and the 5P Check
SRM is about gathering information, analyzing it, and making decisions. Learning how to identify problems, analyze the information,
and make informed and timely decisions is not as straightforward as the training involved in learning specific maneuvers. Learning
how to judge a situation and “how to think” in the endless variety of situations encountered while flying out in the “real world” is
more difficult. There is no one right answer in ADM; rather, each pilot is expected to analyze each situation in light of experience
level,
personal minimums, and current physical and mental readiness level, and make his or her own decision.
SRM sounds good on paper, but it requires a way for pilots to understand and use it in their daily flights. One practical application is
called the “Five Ps” (5 Ps). [Figure 1-9] The 5 Ps consist of “the Plan, the Plane, the Pilot, the Passengers, and the Programming.”
Each of these areas consists of a set of challenges and opportunities that face a single pilot. And each can substantially increase or
dec
rease the risk of successfully completing the flight based on the pilot’s ability to make informed and timely decisions. The 5 Ps are
used to evaluate the pilot’s current situation at key decision points during the flight, or when an emergency arises. These d ecision
points include preflight, pretakeoff, hourly or at the midpoint of the flight, predescent, and just prior to the final approach fix or for
visual flight rules (VFR) operations, just prior to entering the traffic pattern.
Figure 1-9. The 5P checklist.
The 5 Ps are based on the idea that the pilot has essentially five variables that impact his or her environment and that can cause the
pilot to make a single critical decision, or several less critical decisions, that when added together can create a critical outcome. This
concept stems from the belief that current decision-making models tend to be reactionary in nature. A change must occur and be
detected to drive a risk management decision by the pilot. For instance, many pilots use risk management sheets that are filled out by
the pilot prior to takeoff. These form a catalog of risks that may be encountered that day and turn them into numerical values. If the
total exceeds a certain level, the flight is altered or canceled. Informal research shows that while these are useful documents for
teaching risk factors, they are almost never used outside of formal training programs. The 5P concept is an attempt to take the
information contained in those sheets and in the other available models and use it.
The 5P concept relies on the pilot to adopt a scheduled review of the critical variables at points in the flight where decisions are most
likely to be effective. For instance, the easiest point to cancel a flight due to bad weather is before the pilot and passengers walk out
the door to load the aircraft. So, the first decision point is preflight in the flight planning room, where all the information is readily
available to make a sound decision, and where communication and Fixed Base Operator (FBO) services are readily available to make
alternate travel plans.
The second easiest point in the flight to make a critical safety decision is just prior to takeoff. Few pilots have ever had to make an
emergency takeoff. While the point of the 5P check is to help the pilot fly, the correct application of the 5P before takeoff is to assist
in making a reasoned go/no-go decision based on all the information available. These two points in the process of flying are critical
go/no-go points on each and every flight.
The third place to review the 5 Ps is at the midpoint of the flight. Often, pilots may wait until the Automated Terminal information
Service (ATIS) is in range to check weather, yet at this point in the flight many good options have already passed behind the aircraft
and pilot. Additionally, fatigue and low-altitude hypoxia serve to rob the pilot of much of his or her energy by the end of a long and
tiring flight day. This leads to a transition from a decision-making mode to an acceptance mode on the part of the pilot. If the flight is
longer than 2 hours, the 5P check should be conducted hourly.
The last two decision points are just prior to decent into the terminal area and just prior to the final approach fix, or if VFR just prior
to entering the traffic pattern, as preparations for landing commence. Some pilots execute approaches with the expectation that they
will land out of the approach every time. When using a risk management thought process, the pilot realizes that changing conditions
(the 5 Ps again) may cause the pilot to divert or execute the missed approach on each approach. Let’s look at a detailed discussion of
each of the Five Ps.
The Plan
The plan can also be called the mission or the task. It contains the basic elements of cross-country planning, weather, route, fuel,
publications currency, etc. The plan should be reviewed and updated several times during the course of the flight. A delayed takeoff
due to maintenance, fast moving weather, and a short notice temporary flight restriction (TFR) may all radically alter the plan. The
plan is not only about the flight plan, but also all the events that surround the flight and allow the pilot to accomplish the mission. The
plan is always being updated and modified and is especially responsive to changes in the other four remaining Ps. If for no other
reason, the 5P check reminds the pilot that the day’s flight plan is real life and subject to change at any time.
Obviously, weather is a huge part of any plan. The addition of real time data link weather information gives the pilot a real advantage
in inclement weather, but only if the pilot is trained to retrieve, and evaluate the weather in real time without sacrificing situational
awareness. And of course, weather information should drive a decision, even if that decision is to continue on the current plan. Pilots
of aircraft without data link weather should get updated weather in flight through Flight Service.
The Plane
Both the plan and the plane are fairly familiar to most pilots. The plane consists of the usual array of mechanical and cosmetic issues
that every aircraft pilot, owner, or operator can identify. With the advent of advanced avionics, the plane has expanded to include
database currency, automation status, and emergency backup systems that were unknown a few years ago. Much has been written
about single-pilot IFR flight both with and without an autopilot. While this is a personal decision, it is just that —a decision. Low IFR
in a non-autopilot equipped aircraft may depend on several of the other Ps to be discussed. Pilot proficiency, currency, and fatigue are
among them.
The Pilot
Flying, especially when used for business transportation, can expose the pilot to high altitude flying, long distance and endurance, and
more challenging weather.
The combination of late night, pilot fatigue, and the effects of sustained flight above 5,000 feet may cause pilots to become less
discerning, less critical of information, less decisive, and more compliant and accepting. Just as the most critical portion of the flight
approaches (for instance, a night instrument approach in the weather after a 4- hour flight), the pilot’s guard is down the most. The 5P
process helps a pilot recognize the physiological situation at the end of the flight before takeoff and continues to update personal
conditions as the flight progresses. Once risks are identified, the pilot is in a better position to make alternate plans that lessen the
effect of these factors and provide a safer solution.
The Passengers
One of the key differences between CRM and SRM may include the way passengers interact with the pilot. The pilot of a single-pilot
aircraft may often interact with the passengers. In fact, the pilot and passengers may sit within arm’s reach.
The desire of the passengers to make airline connections or important business meetings enters easily into this pilot’s decision-making
loop. Done in a healthy and open way, this can be a positive factor. Consider a flight to Dulles Airport and the passengers, both close
friends and business partners, need to get to Washington, D.C., for an important meeting. The weather is VFR all the way to southern
Virginia, then turns to low IFR as the pilot approaches Dulles. A pilot employing the 5P approach might consider reserving a rental
car at an airport in northern North Carolina or southern Virginia to coincide with a refueling stop. Thus, the passengers have a way to
get to Washington, and the pilot has an out to avoid being pressured into continuing the flight if the conditions do not improve.
Passengers can also b e pilots. If no one is design ated as pilot in comman d (PIC) and unplanned circumstances arise, the decision-
making styles of several self-confident pilots may conflict.
Pilots also need to understand that non-pilots may not understand the level of risk involved in the flight. There is an element of risk in
every flight. That is why SRM calls it risk management, not risk elimination. While a pilot may feel comfortable with the risk present
in a night IFR flight, the passengers may not. A pilot employing SRM should ensure the passengers are involved in the decision-
making and given tasks and duties to keep them busy and involved. If, upon a factual description of the risks present, the passengers
decide to buy an airline ticket or rent a car, then a good decision has generally been made. This discussion also allows the pilot to
move past what he or she thinks the passengers want to do and find out what they actually want to do. This removes self-induced
pressure from the pilot.
The Programming
The electronic instrument displays, GPS, and autopilot reduce pilot workload and increase pilot situational awareness. While
programming and operation of these devices are fairly simple and straightforward, unlike the analog instruments they replace, they
tend to capture the pilot’s attention and hold it for long periods of time. To avoid this phenomenon, the pilot should plan in advance
when and where the programming for approaches, route changes, and airport information gathering should be accomplished as well as
times it should not. Pilot familiarity with the equipment, the route, the local air traffic control environment, and personal capabilities
vis-à-vis the automation should drive when, where, and how the automation is programmed and used.
The pilot should also consider what his or her capabilities are in response to last-minute changes of the approach (and the
reprogramming required) and ability to make large-scale changes (a reroute for instance) while hand flying the aircraft. Since formats
are not standardized, simply moving from one manufacturer’s equipment to another should give the pilot pause and may require more
conservative planning and decisions.
The SRM process is simple. At least five times before and during the flight, the pilot should review and consider the “Plan, the Plane,
the Pilot, the Passengers, and the Programming” and make the appropriate decision required by the current situation. It is often said
that failure to make a decision is a decision. Under SRM and the 5 Ps, even the decision to make no changes to the current plan is
made through careful consideration of all the risk factors present.
Information Management
The volume of information presented in aviation training is enormous, but part of the process of good SRM is a continuous fl ow of
information in and actions out. How a learner manages the flow of information definitely has an effect on the relative success or
failure of each and every flight because proper information contributes to valid decisions. Scenario-based training (SBT) plays an
important part in teaching the learner how to gather pertinent information from all available sources, make appropriate decisions, and
assess the actions taken.
Some pilots who transition to an unfamiliar sophisticated aircraft, may be overwhelmed and unable to find a specific piece of
information. The first critical information management skill includes understanding the systems and displays at a conceptual level.
Remembering how the system is organized helps the pilot manage the available information. Simulation software and manuals on the
specific system used are of great value in furthering understanding for both the flight instructor and the learner.
good strategy for accessing and managing th e available information from PFD to navigational charts is to stop, look, and analyze.
The goal is for the learner to understand how to monitor, manage, and prioritize the information flow to accomplish specific tasks.
Task Management
Task management (TM), a significant factor in flight safety, is the process by which pilots manage the many, concurrent tasks that
should be performed to safely and efficiently fly a modern aircraft. A task is a function performed by a human, as opposed to one
performed by a machine (e.g., setting the target heading in the autopilot).
The flight deck is an environment in which important tasks compete for pilot attention at any given time. TM determines which tasks
the pilot(s) should attend to. TM entails initiation of new tasks; monitoring of ongoing tasks to determine their status; prioritization of
tasks based on their importance, status, urgency, and other factors; allocation of human and machine resources to high-priority tasks;
interruption and subsequent resumption of lower priority tasks; and termination of tasks that are completed or no longer relevant.
When information flow exceeds a person’s ability to mentally process the information, any additional information becomes
unattended or displaces other tasks and information already being processed. Once the information flow reaches its limit, two
alternatives exist: shed the unimportant tasks or perform all tasks at a less than optimal level. Like an electrical circuit being
overloaded, either the consumption must be reduced, or a circuit failure is experienced. Once again, SBT helps the learner understand
how to effectively manage tasks and properly prioritize them.
Automation Management
Automation management is the demonstrated ability to control and navigate an aircraft by means of the automated systems installed in
the aircraft. One of the most important concepts of automation management is knowing when to use it and when not to use it. Ideally,
the goal of the flight instructor is to train the learner until he or she understands how to operate the aircraft, using all the available
automation. However, the flight instructor should ensure the learner also knows how and when to operate the aircraft without the
benefit of the automation.
No one level of automation is appropriate for all flight situations, and the learner should know how to set the level of automation. It is
important for a learner to know how to operate the particular automated system being used. This ensures the learner knows what to
expect, how to monitor for proper operation, and promptly take appropriate action if the system does not perform as expected.
At the most basic level, managing the autopilot means knowing at all times which modes are engaged and which modes are armed to
engage. The learner needs to verify that armed functions (e.g., navigation tracking or altitude capture) engage at the appropriate time.
Automation management is a good place to practice the callout technique, especially after arming the system to make a change in
course or altitude.
Aeronautical Decision-Making
Aviation training and flight operations are now seen as a system rather than individual concepts. The goal of system safety is for
pilots to utilize all four concepts (ADM, risk management, situational awareness, and SRM) so that risk can be reduced to the lowest
possible level.
ADM is a systematic approach to the mental process used by aircraft pilots to consistently determine the best course of action in
response to a given set of circumstances. Risk management is a decision-making process designed to systematically identify hazards,
assess the degree of risk, and determine the best course of action associated with each flight. Situational awareness is the accurate
perception and understanding of all the factors and conditions within the four fundamental risk elements that affect safety before,
during, and after the flight. SRM is the art and science of managing all resources (both onboard the aircraft and from outside sources)
available to a single pilot (prior and during flight) to ensure the successful outcome of the flight.
These key principles are often collectively called ADM. The importance of teaching learners effective ADM skills cannot be
overemphasized. While progress is continually being made in the advancement of pilot training methods, aircraft equipment and
systems, and services for pilots, accidents still occur. Despite all the changes in technology to improve flight safety, one factor
remains the same—the human factor. It is estimated that approximately 80 percent of all aviation accidents are human factors related.
By taking a system approach to aviation safety, fligh t instructors interweav e aeronautical knowledge, aircraft control skills, ADM,
risk management, situational awareness, and SRM into the training process.
Historically, the term “pilot error” has been used to describe the causes of these accidents. Pilot error means that an action or decision
made by the pilot was the cause of, or contributing factor to, the accident. This definition also includes the pilot’s failure to make a
decision or take action. From a broader perspective, the phrase “human factors related” more aptly describes these accidents since it
is usually not a single decision that leads to an accident, but a chain of events triggered by a number of factors.
The poor judgment chain, or the error chain, describes this concept of contributing factors in a human factors-related accident.
Breaking one link in the chain is all that is usually necessary to change the outcome of the sequence of events. The best way to
illustrate this concept to learners is to discuss specific situations that lead to aircraft accidents or incidents. The following is an
example of the type of scenario that can be presented to illustrate the poor judgment chain.
A private pilot with 100 hours of flight time made a precautionary landing on a narrow dirt runway at a private airport. The pilot lost
directional control during landing and swerved off the runway into the grass. A witness recalled later that the aircraft appeared to be
too high and fast on final approach, and speculated the pilot was having difficulty controlling the aircraft in high winds. The weather
at the time of the incident was reported as marginal VFR due to rain showers and thunderstorms. When the aircraft was fueled the
following morning, 60 gallons of fuel were required to fill the 62-gallon capacity tanks.
By discussing the events that led to this incident, instructors can help learners understand how a series of judgmental errors
contributed to the final outcome of this flight.
⦁ Weather decision—on the morning of the flight, the pilot was running late and, having acquired a computer
printout of the forecast the night before, he did not self-brief or obtain a briefing from Flight Service before
his departure.
⦁ Flight planning decision/performance chart—the pilot calculated total fuel requirements for the trip based
on a rule-of-thumb figure he had used previously for another airplane. He did not use the fuel tables printed
in the pilot’s operating handbook (POH) for the aircraft he was flying on this trip. After reaching his
destination, the pilot did not request refueling. Based on his original calculations, he believed sufficient
fuel remained for the flight home.
⦁ Fatigue/failure to recognize personal limitations—in the presence of deteriorating weather, the pilot
departed for the flight home at 5:00 p.m. He did not consider how fatigue and lack of extensive night flying
experience could affect the flight.
⦁ Fuel exhaustion—with the aircraft fuel supply almost exhausted, the pilot no longer had the option of
diverting to avoid rapidly developing thunderstorms. He was forced to land at the nearest airfield available.
On numerous occasions during the flight, the pilot could have made decisions which may have prevented this incident. However, as
the chain of events unfolded, each poor decision left him with fewer and fewer options. On the positive side, the pilot made a
precautionary landing at a time and place of his choosing. VFR into IMC accidents often lead to fatalities. In this case, the pilot
landed his aircraft without loss of life.
Teaching pilots to make sound decisions is the key to preventing accidents. Traditional pilot instruction has emphasized flying skills,
knowledge of the aircraft, and familiarity with regulations. ADM training focuses on the decision-making process and the factors that
affect a pilot’s ability to make effective choices.
Timely decision-making is an important tool for any pilot. The learner who hesitates when prompt action is required, or who makes
the decision to not decide, has made a wrong decision. Emergencies require the pilot to think —assess the situation, choose and
execute the actions that assure safety.
It is important for flight instructors to teach learners that declaring an emergency when one occurs is an appropriate reaction. Once an
emergency is declared, air traffic control (ATC) gives the pilot priority handling. 14 CFR Section 91.3, Responsibility and Authority
of the Pilot in Command, states that “In an inflight emergency requiring immediate action, the pilot in command may deviate f rom
any rule of this part to the extent required to meet that emergency.”
Flight instructors should incorporate ADM, risk management, situational awareness, and SRM throughout the entire training course
for all levels of learners. AC 60-22, Aeronautical Decision Making, provides background references, definitions, and other pertinent
information about ADM training in the general aviation (GA) environment. [Figure 1-10]
The Decision-Making Process
An understanding of the decision-making process provides learners with a foundation for developing ADM skills. Some situations,
such as engine failures, require a pilot to respond immediately using established procedures with little time for detailed analysis.
Traditionally, pilots have been well trained to react to emergencies but are not as well prepared to make decisions, which require a
more reflective response. Typically during a flight, the pilot has time to examine any changes that occur, gather information, and
assess risk before reaching a decision. The steps leading to this conclusion constitute the decision-making process. When the
decision-making process is presented to learners it is essential to discuss how the process applies to an actual flight situation. To
explain the decision-making process, the instructor can introduce the following steps with the accompanying scenario that places the
learners in the position of making a decision about a typical flight situation.
Defining the Problem
The first step in the decision-making process is to define the problem. This begins with recognizing that a change has occurred or that
an expected change did not occur. A problem is perceived first by the senses, and then is distinguished through insight and
experience. These same abilities, as well as an objective analysis of all available information, are used to determine the exact nature
and severity of the problem.
One critical error that can be made during the decision-making process is incorrectly defining the problem. For example, failure of a
landing-gear-extended light to illuminate could indicate that the gear is not down and locked into place or it could mean the bulb is
burned out. The actions to be taken in each of these circumstances would be significantly different. Fixating on a problem that does
not exist can divert the pilot’s attention from important tasks. The pilot’s failure to maintain an awareness of the circumst ances
regarding the flight now becomes the problem. This is why once an initial assumption is made regarding the problem, other sources
should be used to verify that the pilot’s conclusion is correct.
While on a cross-country flight, Brenda discovers her time en route between two checkpoints is significantly longer than the time she
originally calculated. By noticing this discrepancy, she has recognized a change. Based on insight, cross-country flying experience,
and knowledge of weather systems, she considers the possibility that she has an increased headwind. She verifies that the original
calculations are correct and considers factors that may have lengthened the time between checkpoints, such as a climb or deviation off
course. To determine if there is a change in the winds aloft forecast and to check recent pilot reports, she contacts Flight Service.
After weighing each information source, she concludes that the headwind has increased. To determine the severity of the
problem, she calculates a new groundspeed and reassesses fuel requirements.
Figure 1-10. Terms used in AC 60-22 to explain concepts used in ADM training.
Choosing a Course of Action
After the problem has been identified, the pilot evaluates the need to react to it and determines the actions that may be taken to
resolve the situation in the time available. The expected outcome of each possible action should be considered, and the risks assessed
before the pilot decides on a response to the situation.
Brenda determines the fuel burn if she continues to her destination and considers other options: turning around and landing at a
nearby airport, diverting off course, or landing prior to her destination at an airport en route. She considers the expected outcome of
each possible action and assesses the risks involved. After studying the chart, she concludes an airport with fueling services is within
a reasonable distance along her route. She can refuel there and continue to her destination without a significant loss of time.
Implementing the Decision and Evaluating the Outcome
Although a decision may be reached and a course of action implemented, the decision-making process is not complete. It is important
to think ahead and determine how the decision could affect other phases of the flight. As the flight progresses, the pilot should
continue to evaluate the outcome of the decision to ensure that it is producing the desired result.
To implement her decision, Brenda plots the course changes and calculates a new estimated time of arrival. She also amends he r
flight plan and checks weather conditions at the new destination. As she proceeds to the airport, she continues to monitor
groundspeed, aircraft performance, and weather conditions to ensure no additional steps need to be taken to guarantee the safety of
the flight.
Factors Affecting Decision-Making
It is important to stress to a learner that being familiar with the decision-making process does not ensure he or she has the good
judgment to be a safe pilot. The ability to make effective decisions as PIC depends on a number of factors. Some circumstances, such
as the time available to make a decision, may be beyond the pilot’s control. However, a pilot can learn to recognize those factors that
can be managed, and learn skills to improve decision-making ability and judgment.
Recognizing Hazardous Attitudes
While the ADM process does not eliminate errors, it helps the pilot recognize errors, and in turn enables the pilot to manage any
errors to minimize their effects. In addition, two steps to improve flight safety are identifying personal attitudes hazardous to safe
flight and learning behavior modification techniques.
Flight instructors should be able to spot hazardous attitudes in a learner because recognition of hazardous thoughts is the first step
toward neutralizing them. Flight instructors should keep in mind that being fit to fly depends on more than just a pilot’s physical
ondition and recency of experience. Hazardous attitudes contribute to poor pilot judgment and affect the quality of decisions.
Attitude can be defined as a personal motivational predisposition to respond to persons, situations, or events in a given manner.
Studies have identified five hazardous attitudes that can affect a pilot’s ability to make sound decisions and exercise authority
properly. [Figure 1-11]
Figure 1-11. Pilots should examine their decisions carefully to ensure that their choices have not been influenced by a hazardous
attitude