Worry or Lack of Interest
Worry or lack of interest has a detrimental effect on learning. Learners who are worried or emotionally upset are not ready to learn
and derive little benefit from instruction. Worry or distraction may be due to learner concerns about progress in the training course, or
may stem from circumstances completely unrelated to their instruction. Significant emotional upsets may be due to personal
problems, emotional problems, or a dislike of the training program or the instructor.
The experiences of learners outside their training activities affect behavior and performance in training; the two cannot be separated.
When learners begin flight training, they bring with them their interests, enthusiasms, fears, and troubles. The instructor cannot be
responsible for these outside diversions, but cannot ignore them because they have a critical effect on the learning process. Instruction
should be keyed to the utilization of the interests and enthusiasm learners bring with them, and to diverting their attention from their
worries and troubles to learning the tasks at hand. This is admittedly difficult, but needs to be accomplished if learning is to proceed
at a normal rate.
Worries and emotional upsets that result from a flight training course can be identified and addressed. These problems are often due
to inadequacies of the course or of the instructor. The most effective cure is prevention. The instructor should be alert and ensure the
learners understand the objectives of each step of their training, and that they know at the completion of each lesson exactly how well
they have progressed and what deficiencies are apparent. Discouragement and emotional upsets are rare when learners feel that
nothing is being withheld from them or is being neglected in their training.
Physical Discomfort, Illness, Fatigue, and Dehydration
Physical discomfort, illness, and fatigue will slow the rate of learning during both classroom instruction and flight training. Learners
who are not completely at ease, and whose attention is diverted by discomforts such as the extremes of temperature, poor ventilation,
inadequate lighting, or noise and confusion, cannot learn at a normal rate. This is true no matter how diligently they attempt to apply
themselves to the learning task.
A minor illness such as a cold, or a major illness or injury interferes with the normal rate of learning. This is especially important for
flight instruction. Most illnesses adversely affect the acuteness of vision, hearing, and feeling, all of which are essential to correct
performance.
Airsickness can be a great deterrent to flight instruction. A learner who is airsick or bothered with incipient airsickness is incapable of
learning at a normal rate. There is no sure cure for airsickness, but resistance or immunity usually can be developed in a relatively
short period of time. An instructional flight should be terminated as soon as incipient sickness is experienced. As the learner develops
immunity, flights can be increased in length until normal flight periods are practicable.
Keeping learners interested and occupied during flight is a deterrent to airsickness. They are much less apt to become airsick while
operating the controls themselves. Blowing fresh air across the face also helps reduce symptoms of incipient sickness. Rough air and
unexpected abrupt maneuvers tend to increase the chances of airsickness. Tension and apprehension contribute to airsickness and
should be avoided.
Fatigue
Fatigue is one of the most treacherous hazards to flight safety as it may not be apparent to a pilot until serious errors are made.
Fatigue can be either acute (short-term) or chronic (long-term). Acute fatigue, a normal occurrence of everyday living, is the tiredness
felt after long periods of physical and mental strain, including strenuous muscular effort, immobility, heavy mental workload, strong
emotional pressure, monotony, or lack of sleep.
Acute fatigue caused by training operations may be physical or mental, or both. It is not necessarily a function of physical strength or
mental acuity. The amount of training any learner can absorb without incurring debilitating fatigue varies. Generally speaking,
complex operations tend to induce fatigue more rapidly than simpler procedures do, regardless of the physical effort involved .
Fatigue is the primary consideration in determining the length and frequency of flight instruction periods and flight instruction should
be continued only as long as the learner is alert, receptive to instruction, and is performing at a level consistent with experience.
It is important for a flight instructor to be able to detect fatigue, both in assessing a learner’s substandard performance early in a
lesson, and also in recognizing the deterioration of performance. If fatigue occurs as a result of application to a learning task, the
learner should be given a break in instruction and practice.
A flight instructor who is familiar with the signs indicative to acute fatigue will be more aware if the learner is
experiencing them. The deficiencies listed below are apparent to others before the individual notices any physical signs of fatigue.
Acute fatigue is characterized by:
⦁ Inattention
⦁ Distractibility
⦁ Errors in timing
⦁ Neglect of secondary tasks
⦁ Loss of accuracy and control
⦁ Lack of awareness of error accumulation
⦁ Irritability
Another form of fatigue is chronic fatigue which occurs when there is not enough time for a full recovery from repeated episodes of
acute fatigue. Chronic fatigue’s underlying cause is generally not “rest-related” and may have deeper points of origin. Therefore, rest
alone may not resolve chronic fatigue.
Chronic fatigue is a combination of both physiological problems and psychological issues. Psychological problems such as financial,
home life, or job-related stresses cause a lack of qualified rest that is only solved by mitigating the underlying problems before the
fatigue is solved. Without resolution, human performance continues to deteriorate, and judgment becomes impaired so that
unwarranted risks may be taken. Recovery from chronic fatigue requires a prolonged and deliberate solution. In either case, unless
adequate precautions are taken, personal performance could be impaired and adversely affect pilot judgment and decision-making.
Dehydration and Heatstroke
Dehydration is the term given to a critical loss of water from the body. Dehydration reduces a pilot’s level of alertness, producing a
subsequent slowing of decision-making processes or even the inability to control the aircraft. The first noticeable effect of
dehydration is fatigue, which in turn makes top physical and mental performance difficult, if not impossible. Flying for long periods
in hot summer temperatures or at high altitudes increases susceptibility to dehydration. High altitude is an issue since dry air at high
altitudes tends to increase the rate of water loss from the body. If this fluid is not replaced, fatigue progresses to dizziness, weakness,
nausea, tingling of hands and feet, abdominal cramps, and extreme thirst.
Heatstroke is a condition caused by any inability of the body to control its temperature. Onset of this condition may be recognized by
the symptoms of dehydration, but its recognition may occur too late if it results in a sudden complete collapse. To prevent these
symptoms, it is recommended that an ample supply of water be carried and used at frequent intervals on any long flight, whether the
pilot is thirsty or not. If the airplane has a canopy or roof window, wearing light-colored, porous clothing and a hat helps provide
protection from the sun. Keeping the flight deck well ventilated aids in dissipating excess heat.
Apathy Due to Inadequate Instruction
Learners can become apathetic when they recognize that the instructor has made inadequate preparations for the instruction being
given, or when the instruction appears to be deficient, contradictory, or insincere. To hold the learner’s interest and to maintain the
motivation necessary for efficient learning, instructors should provide well-planned, appropriate, and accurate instruction. Nothing
destroys a learner’s interest as quickly as a poorly organized period of instruction. Even an inexperienced learner realizes
immediately when the instructor has failed to prepare a lesson. [Figure 2-7]
Instruction may be overly explicit and complicated, too elementary, or so general that it fails to evoke the interest necessary for
effective learning. To be effective, the instructor teaches for the level of the learner. The presentation should be adjusted to be
meaningful to the person for whom it is intended. For example, instruction in the preflight inspection of an aircraft should be
presented quite differently for a learner who is a skilled aircraft maintenance technician (AMT) compared to the instruction on the
same operation for a learner with no previous aeronautical experience. The instruction needed in each case is the same but a
presentation meaningful to one of these learners might not be appropriate for the other.
Poor instructional presentations may result not only from poor preparation, but also from distracting mannerisms, personal untidiness,
or the appearance of irritation with the learner. Creating the impression of talking down to the learner is one of the fastest ways for an
instructor to lose learner confidence and attention. Once the instructor loses learner confidence, it is difficult to regain, and the
learning rate is unnecessarily diminished.
Figure 2-7. Poor preparation leads to spotty coverage, misplaced emphasis, unnecessary repetition, and a lack of confidence on the
part of the learner. The instructor should always have a plan.
Normal Reactions to Stress
As mentioned earlier in the chapter, when a threat is recognized or imagined, the brain alerts the body. The adrenal gland activates
hormones, which prepare the body to meet the threat or to retreat from it—the fight or flight syndrome.
Normal individuals begin to respond rapidly and exactly, within the limits of their experience and training. Many responses are
automatic, highlighting the need for proper training in emergency operations prior to an actual emergency. The affected individual
thinks rationally, acts rapidly, and is extremely sensitive to all aspects of the surroundings.
Abnormal Reactions to Stress
Reactions to stress may produce abnormal responses in some people. With them, response to anxiety or stress may be completely
absent or at least inadequate. Their responses may be random or illogical, or they may do more than is called for by the situation.
During flight instruction, instructors are normally the only ones who can observe learners when they are under pressure. Instructors,
therefore, are in a position to differentiate between safe and unsafe piloting actions. Instructors also may be able to detect potential
psychological problems. The following learner reactions are indicative of abnormal reactions to stress. None of them provides an
absolute indication, but the presence of any of them under conditions of stress is reason for careful instructor evaluation.
⦁ Inappropriate reactions, such as extreme over-cooperation, painstaking self-control, inappropriate
laughter or singing, and very rapid changes in emotions.
⦁ Marked changes in mood on different lessons, such as excellent morale followed by deep depression.
⦁ Severe anger directed toward the flight instructor, service personnel, and others.
In difficult situations, flight instructors should carefully examine learner responses and their own responses to the learners. These
responses may be the normal products of a complex learning situation but they also can be indicative of psychological abnormalities
that inhibit learning or are potentially very hazardous to future piloting operations. [Figure 2-8]
Flight Instructor Actions Regarding Seriously Abnormal Learners
A flight instructor who believes a learner may be suffering from a serious psychological abnormality has a responsibility to refrain
from instructing that learner. In addition, a flight instructor has the personal responsibility of assuring that such a person does not
continue flight training or become certificated as a pilot. To accomplish this, the following steps are available:
⦁ If an instructor believes that a learner may have a disqualifying psychological defect, arrangements
should be made for another instructor, who is not acquainted with the learner, to conduct an
evaluation flight. After the flight, the two instructors should confer to determine whether they agree
that further investigation or action is justified.
⦁ The flight instructor’s primary legal responsibility concerns the decision whether to endorse the
learner to be competent for solo flight operations, or to make a recommendation for the practical test
leading to certification as a pilot. If, after consultation with an unbiased instructor, the instructor
believes that the learner may have a serious psychological deficiency, such endorsements and
recommendations should be withheld.
Figure 2-8. A learner with marked changes in mood during different lessons, such as excellent mora le followed by deep depression, is
indicative of an abnormal reaction to stress.
AMTs and Flight Instructors as Learners
Both AMTs and flight instructors sometimes deal with new or unfamiliar technology. For instance, an instructor flying a different
aircraft may have to manage a particular system or avionics suite for the first time. Likewise, the AMT who is accustomed to working
with one type of aircraft has developed analytical processes that may not transfer to another aircraft as well as expected. In both cases,
the instructors may be very highly experienced, but change and its associated stress may have risk consequences.
Technological advances in aircraft, powerplants, and systems can outpace the knowledge of flight instructors and AMTs if they don’t
ensure they remain adequately trained. This ongoing training may remind instructors of their own tendencies to become
vulnerable and less objective. By understanding their own training, instructors gain the insight to direct learners to think rationally
and overcome stress. Instructors should understand that their own actions and care for others during the training they provide can
frame the way a learner responds well into the future.
Diminishing stress and strengthening a learner’s confidence and decision-making skills can be achieved by incorporating a risk
assessment tool into a training program. Risk assessment tools should always be used to help determine the level of risk involved with
any flight so that the pilot or other support person maintains a margin of safety in the activity they are involved. Key to any risk
assessment is the individual’s objectivity to ensure safety during their flight.
Teaching the Adult Learner
While aviation instructors teach learners of all ages, the average aviation learner age is 30 years old. This means the aviation
instructor needs to be versed in the needs of adult learners. The field of adult education is relatively young, having been established in
the late twentieth century by Dr. Malcolm Knowles. His research revealed certain traits that need to be recognized when teaching
adult learners as well as ways instructors can use these traits to teach older learners.
Adults as learners possess the following characteristics:
⦁ Adults who are motivated to seek out a learning experience do so primarily because they have a use for the
knowledge or skill being sought. Learning is a means to an end, not an end in itself.
⦁ Adults seek out learning experiences in order to cope with specific life-changing events—marriage,
divorce, a new job. They are ready to learn when they assume new roles.
⦁ Adults are autonomous and self-directed; they need to be independent and exercise control.
⦁ Adults have accumulated a foundation of life experiences and knowledge and draw upon this reservoir of
experience for learning.
⦁ Adults are goal-oriented.
⦁ Adults are relevancy oriented. Their time perspective changes from one of postponed knowledge
application to immediate application.
⦁ Adults are practical, focusing on the aspects of a lesson most useful to them in their work.
⦁ As do all learners, adults need to be shown respect.
⦁ The need to increase or maintain a sense of self-esteem is a strong secondary motivator for adult learners
⦁ Adults want to solve problems and apply new knowledge immediately.
Instructors should:
⦁ Provide a training syllabus (see Chapter 7, Planning Instructional Activity) that is organized with clearly
defined course objectives to show the learner how the training helps him or her attain specific goals.
⦁ Help learners integrate new ideas with what they already know to ensure they keep and use the new
information.
⦁ Assume responsibility only for his or her own expectations, not for those of learners. It is important to
clarify and articulate all learner expectations early on.
⦁ Recognize the learner’s need to control pace and start/stop time.
⦁ Take advantage of the adult preference to self-direct and self-design learning projects by giving the learner
frequent scenario based training (SBT) opportunities
⦁ Remember that self-direction does not mean isolation. Studies of self-directed learning indicate self-
directed projects involve other people as resources, guides, etc.
⦁ Use books, programmed instruction, and computers which are popular with adult learners.
⦁ Refrain from “spoon-feeding” the learner.
⦁ Set a cooperative learning climate.
⦁ Create opportunities for mutual planning.
An aviation learner may be the retired business executive who always wanted to learn how to fly, an Army helicopter pilot who wants
to learn how to fly an airplane, or a former automobile mechanic who decides to pursue avionics. These learners may be financially
stressed, or they may be financially secure. They may be healthy but they may be experiencing such age-related problems as
diminished hearing or eyesight. Whatever the personal circumstances of the learner, he or she wants the learning experience to be
problem-oriented, personalized, and the instructor to be accepting of the learner’s need for self-direction and personal responsibility.
Chapter Summary
This chapter discussed how human behavior affects learning, the effect of human needs on learning, defense mechanisms learners use
to prevent learning, how adults learn, and the flight instructor’s role in determining a learner’s future in the aviation community. For
more information on these topics, it is recommended the instructor read a general educational psychology text or visit one of the many
online sites devoted to education.