Physical Organization
The physical organism provides individuals with the perceptual apparatus for sensing the world around them. Pilots, for example,
need to see, hear, feel, and respond adequately while they are in the air.
Goals and Values
Perceptions depend on one’s values and goals. Every experience and sensation, which is funneled into one’s central nervous system,
is colored by the individual’s own beliefs and value structures. Spectators at a ball game may see an infraction or foul diff erently
depending on which team they support. The values of the learner are important for the instructor to know, because this knowledge
assists in predicting how he or she interprets experiences and instructions.
Goals are also a product of one’s value structure. Things that are more highly valued and cherished are pursued; those accord ed less
value and importance are not sought after.
Self-Concept
Self-concept is a powerful determinant in learning. A learner’s self-image, described in such terms as “confident” or “insecure,” has a
great influence on the total perceptual process. If a learner’s experiences tend to support a favorable self -image, the learner tends to
remain receptive to subsequent experiences. If a learner has negative experiences, which tend to contradict self-concept, there is a
tendency to reject additional training.
A negative self-concept inhibits the perceptual processes by introducing psychological barriers, which tend to keep the learner from
perceiving. They may also inhibit the ability to properly implement what is perceived. That is, self-concept affects the ability to
actually perform or do things. Learners who view themselves positively, on the other hand, are less defensive and more receptive to
new experiences, instructions, and demonstrations.
Time and Opportunity
It takes time and opportunity to perceive. Learning some things depends on other past perceptions and on the availability of time to
sense and relate these new things to the earlier perceptions. Thus, proper sequence and time are necessary.
A learner could probably stall an aircraft on the first attempt, regardless of previous experience. Stall recovery cannot really be
learned, however, unless some experience in normal flight has been acquired. Even with such experience, time and practice are
needed to relate the new sensations and experiences associated with stall recovery in order to develop a perception of the stall. In
general, lengthening an experience and increasing its frequency are the most obvious ways to speed up learning, although this is not
always effective. Many factors, in addition to the length and frequency of training periods, affect the rate of learning. The
effectiveness of the use of a properly planned training syllabus is proportional to the consideration it gives to the time and opportunity
factor in perception.
Element of Threat
The element of threat does not promote effective learning. In fact, fear adversely affects perception by narrowing the perceptual field.
Confronted with threat, learners tend to limit their attention to the threatening object or condition. The field of vision is reduced, for
example, when an individual is frightened and all the perceptual faculties are focused on the thing that has generated fear.
Flight instruction provides many clear examples of this. During the initial practice of steep turns, Beverly may focus her attention on
the altimeter and completely disregard outside visual references. Anything Bill does that is interpreted as threatening makes Beverly
less able to accept the experience Bill is trying to provide. It adversely affects all her physical, emotional, and mental faculties.
Learning is a psychological process, not necessarily a logical one. Trying to frighten a learner through threats of unsatisfactory reports
or reprisals may seem logical, but is not effective psychologically. The effective instructor organizes teaching to fit the psychological
needs of the learner. If a situation seems overwhelming, the learner feels unable to handle all of the factors involved; a threat exists.
As long as the learner feels capable of coping with a situation, each new experience is viewed as a challenge.
A good instructor recognizes that behavior is directly influenced by the way a learner perceives, and perception is affected by all of
these factors. Therefore, it is important for the instructor to facilitate the learning process by avoiding any actions which may inhibit
or prevent the attainment of teaching goals. Teaching is consistently effective only when those factors that influence perception are
recognized and taken into account.
Insight
Insight involves the grouping of perceptions into meaningful wholes. Creating insight is one of the instructor’s major responsibilities.
To ensure that this occurs, it is essential to keep each learner constantly receptive to new experiences and to help them understand
how each piece relates to all other pieces of the total pattern of the task.
For example, during straight-and-level flight in an aircraft with a fixed-pitch propeller, the revolutions per minute (rpm) increase
when the throttle is opened and decrease when it is closed. On the other hand, rpm changes can also result from changes in aircraft
pitch attitude without changes in power setting. Obviously, engine speed, power setting, airspeed, and aircraft attitude are all related.
True learning requires an understanding of how each factor may affect all of the others and, at the same time, knowledge of how a
change in any one of them may affect all of the others. This mental relating and grouping of associated perceptions is called insight.
Insight almost always occurs eventually, whether or not instruction is provided. For this reason, it is possible for a person to become
an electrician by trial and error, just as one may become a lawyer by reading law. Instruction, however, speeds this learning process
by teaching the relationship of perceptions as they occur, thus promoting the development of the learner’s insight.
As perceptions increase in number, the learner develops insight by assembling them into larger blocks. As a result, learning becomes
more meaningful and more permanent. Forgetting is less of a problem when there are more anchor points for tying insights together.
It is a major responsibility of the instructor to organize demonstrations and explanations, and to direct practice so that the learner has
better opportunities to understand the interrelationship of the many kinds of experiences that have been perceived. Pointing out the
relationships as they occur, providing a secure and nonthreatening environment in which to learn, and helping the learner acquire and
maintain a favorable self-concept are key steps in fostering the development of insight.
Acquiring Knowledge
Part of an aviation instructor’s job is helping learners acquire knowledge. In this context, knowledge refers to information that
humans are consciously aware of and can articulate. For example, knowledge of the fuel capacity of a particular aircraft,
understanding how an internal combustion engine works, and the ability to determine the weight and balance of an aircraft are
examples of knowledge.
Figure 3- 6 shows the three phases of knowledge, a progression of how learners acquire knowledge. Some practical considerations
about learning new knowledge and instructor actions that help learners acquire knowledge are summarized.
Memorization
A learner’s first attempt to acquire knowledge about a new topic amounts to memorizing facts about steps in a procedure. For
example, when Beverly is learning to use an altimeter, she may have memorized that the knob on the instrument is used to dial the
current barometric pressure and that this number should be obtained from the recorded broadcast and set prior to flight.
Memorizing facts and steps has an advantage: it allows learners to get started quickly. For example, as soon as Beverly memorizes the
purpose of the knob on the altimeter and the procedure for obtaining the current barometric pressure, she is able to properly configure
the instrument for flight.
The limitations of memorization become apparent when a learner is asked to solve a problem or provide an explanation of something
that is not covered by the newly acquired knowledge. For example, when asked whether she would rather have the altimeter
mistakenly set too high or too low when flying in mountainous terrain, Beverly may not have an answer.
Understanding
A more experienced pilot can answer the altimeter question because she or he understands the ramifications of the question.
Understanding, or the ability to notice similarities and make associations between the facts and procedural steps learned, is an
important next stage in the knowledge acquisition process. At this stage, the learner begins to organize knowledge in useful ways and
a collection of memorized facts gives way to understanding.
Understanding develops when learners begin to organize known facts and steps into coherent groups that come together to form an
understanding of how a thing or a process works. For example, after learning to adjust the mixture control in cruise flight, Beverly
learns that combustion requires a certain mixture of fuel and air, and that air becomes less dense as altitude increases.
Figure 3-6. A learner acquires knowledge through memorization, understanding, and application.
Combining these two ideas, she now understands the purpose of the mixture control is to keep these two quantities in balance as the
aircraft changes altitude. “Mental model” or self-explanation is often used to refer to an organized collection of ideas that forms a
learner’s understanding of a thing or process.
The advantages of possessing this type of understanding include the following:
1. The learner is no longer limited to answering questions that match the memorized facts. For example,
armed with the understanding of the mixture control, Beverly may now be able to produce answers to more
challenging questions, such as what would happen if the mixture were set too rich or too lean.
2. Learners who understand a process have an easier time mastering variations of the processes, such as
unfamiliar aircraft, new avionics systems, and unfamiliar airport procedures.
3. Understanding shared between people allows them to communicate more efficiently. For example, an
experienced pilot might mention to an experienced mechanic that a magneto ran a bit rough during an
engine run-up. This brief communication triggers access to a wealth of knowledge in the mind of the
mechanic who instantly knows what to do.
4. Learners who understand the purpose behind procedure steps are better able to remember the procedure
steps later, or reconstruct them when they are forgotten.
Mental models evolve as learners take in new information. For example, Bill could ask Beverly why flying with an inappropriat e
mixture setting is bad. A learner whose understanding includes knowledge about spark plugs and carbon deposits might answer
correctly. If this same learner’s understanding later extends to include knowledge about thermal efficiency and the stoichiometric
equation for the combustion of gasoline, the explanations are likely to become much more sophisticated. No individual’s
understanding of anything is ever “complete.”
Concept Learning
Concept learning is based on the assumption that humans tend to group objects, events, ideas, people, etc., that share one or more
major attributes that set them apart. It also involves discrimination between types of things or ideas inside or outside of a concept set.
By grouping information into concepts, humans reduce the complexities of life and create manageable categories. Although many
theories about concept learning exist, categorization has always been a central aspect.
Concept learning enhances understanding when individuals formulate generalized concepts from particular facts or steps. Generalized
concepts are more powerful than facts because instead of literally describing one thing, they describe many things at once.
For example, a new flight learner who sees several examples of weight-shift control (WSC) aircraft may formulate a category for
WSC aircraft based on the wing, which is large and fabric covered. The power of the category becomes obvious when the learner sees
a sport plane. Because of the similar wing, he or she immediately categorizes it as an ultralight and ascribes many of the properties of
ultralight aircraft to the sport plane. In this way, the learner has used a generalized concept to begin understanding something new.
Most learners exhibit a natural tendency to categorize and become adept at recognizing members of most any category they create. If
something is encountered that does not fit into a category, these learners formulate a new category or revise the definitions of existing
categories. In the above example, the learner eventually needs to revise the category of ultralight to light-sport aircraft which
encompasses both types of aircraft. Therefore, an important part of the learning process is continual revision of the categories used
when learners encounter new things or exceptions to things previously catalogued.
Another type of generalization is a schema (the cognitive framework that helps people organize and interpret information). Schemas
can be revised by any new information and are useful because they allow people to take shortcuts in interpreting a vast amount of
information.
Humans form schemas when they notice reoccurring patterns in things frequently observed or done. Schemas help learners interpret
things they observe by priming them to expect certain elements that match the schema. For example, schemas demonstrate why an
experienced pilot is able to listen to and read back a lengthy departure clearance issued by air traffic control (ATC). Beginning flight
learners often remember the controller’s use of the words “the” and “and” and fail to note more important words that describe
assigned altitudes or radio frequencies. The experienced pilot is successful because he or she possesses a schema for this type of
event and knows in advance that the clearance contains five key pieces of information. While listening to the clearance, the pilot
anticipates and is primed to capture those five things.
Similarly, learners create schemas for preflight inspection procedures and procedures required to operate advanced flight dec k
systems such as autopilots or multifunction displays. As with categories, humans continuously learn new schemas and revise old ones
to accommodate new things as they continue to learn. While schemas help humans deal with information, they can also make it
difficult to retain new information that does not conform to established schemas.
Thorndike and the Laws of Learning
One of the pioneers of educational psychology, E.L. Thorndike formulated three laws of learning in the early 20th century. [Figure
3-7] These laws are universally accepted and apply to all kinds of learning: the law of readiness, the law of exercise, and the law of
effect. Since Thorndike set down his laws, three more have been added: the law of primacy, the law of intensity, and the law of
recency.
Readiness
The basic needs of the learner need to be satisfied before he or she is ready or capable of learning (see Chapter 2, Human B ehavior).
The instructor can do little to motivate the learner if these needs have not been met. This means the individual should want to learn
the task being presented and possesses the requisite knowledge and skill. In SBT, the instructor attempts to make the task as
meaningful as possible and to keep it within the learner’s capabilities.
Figure 3-7. E. L. Thorndike (1874–1949).
Learners best acquire new knowledge when they see a clear reason for doing so, often show a strong interest in learning what they
believe they need to know next, and tend to set aside things for which they see no immediate need. For example, beginning flight
learners commonly ignore the flight instructor’s suggestion to use the trim control. These learners believe the control yoke is an
adequate way to manipulate the aircraft’s control surfaces. Later in training, when they need to divert their attention away from the
controls to other tasks, they realize the importance of trim.
Instructors can take two steps to keep their learners in a state of readiness to learn. First, instructors should communicate a clear set of
objectives to the learner and relate each new topic to those objectives. Second, instructors should introduce topics in a logical order
and leave learners with a need to learn the next topic. The development and use of a well-designed curriculum accomplish this goal.
Readiness to learn also involves what is called the “teachable moment” or a moment of educational opportunity when a person is
particularly responsive to being taught something. One of the most important skills to develop as an instructor is the ability to
recognize and capitalize on “teachable moments” in aviation training. An instructor can find or create teachable moments in flight
training activity whether it is pattern work, air work in the local practice area, cross-country, flight review, or instrument proficiency
check.
Teachable moments present opportunities to convey information in a way that is relevant, effective, and memorable to the learner.
They occur when a learner can clearly see how specific information or skills can be used in the real-world.
For example, while on final approach several deer cross the runway. Bill capitalizes on this teachable moment to stress the
importance of always being ready to perform a go-around.
Effect
Learning involves the formation of connections, and connections are strengthened or weakened according to the law of effect. The
law states that behaviors that lead to satisfying outcomes are likely to be repeated whereas behaviors that lead to undesired outcomes
are less likely to recur. For example, if Bill teaches landings to Beverly during the first flight, she is likely to feel inferior and be
frustrated, which weakens the intended learning connection.
The learner needs to have success in order to have more success in the future. It is important for the instructor to create situations
designed to promote success. Positive training experiences are more apt to lead to success and motivate the learner, while negative
training experiences might stimulate forgetfulness or avoidance. When presented correctly, SBT provides immediate positive
experiences in terms of real-world applications.
To keep learning pleasant and to maintain motivation, an instructor should make positive comments about the learner’s progress
before discussing areas that need improving. Flight instructors have an opportunity to do this during the flight debriefing. For
example, Bill praises Beverly on her aircraft control during all phases of flight but offers constructive comments on how to better
maintain the runway centerline during landings.
Exercise
Connections are strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued, which reflects the adage “use it or lose it.”
The learner needs to practice what has been taught in order to understand and remember the learning. Practice strengthens the
learning connection; disuse weakens it. Exercise is most meaningful and effective when a skill is learned within the context of a real-
world application.
Primacy
When an error occurs pouring a concrete foundation for a building, undoing and correcting the job becomes much more difficult than
doing it right the first time. Primacy in teaching and learning, what is learned first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable
impression and underlies the reason an instructor needs to teach correctly the first time.
Also, if the task is learned in isolation, it is not initially applied to the overall performance, or if it needs to be relearned, the process
can be confusing and time consuming. The first experience should be positive, functional, and lay the correct foundation for all that is
to follow.
Intensity
Immediate, exciting, or dramatic learning connected to a real situation teaches a learner more than a routine or boring experience.
Real-world applications (scenarios) that integrate procedures and tasks the learner is capable of understanding make a vivid
impression, and he or she is least likely to forget the experience. For example, using realistic scenarios has been shown to be effective
in the development of proficiency in flight maneuvers, tasks, and single-pilot resource management (SRM) skills.
Recency
The principle of recency states that things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a learner is removed in
time from a new fact or understanding, the more difficult it is to remember. For example, it is easy for a learner to recall a torque
value used a few minutes earlier, but it is more difficult or even impossible to remember a value last studied or used further back in
time.
Instructors recognize the principle of recency when they carefully plan a summary for a ground school lesson, a shop period, or a
postflight critique. The instructor repeats, restates, or reemphasizes important points at the end of a lesson to help the learner
remember them. The principle of recency often determines the sequence of lectures within a course of instruction.
In SBT, the closer the training or learning time is to the time of the actual scenario, the more apt the learner is to perfor m
successfully. This law is most effectively addressed by making the training experience as much like the scenario as possible.
Domains of Learning
As mentioned during the discussion of Cognitive Theory, Dr. Bloom played a central role in transforming the field of educational
psychology. Interested in what and how people learn, he proposed a framework to help understand the major areas of learning and
thinking. He first classified them into three large groups [Figure 3-8] called the domains of learning:
⦁ Cognitive (thinking)
⦁ Affective (feeling)
⦁ Psychomotor (doing)
Figure 3-8. An overview of the three learning domains.
Cognitive Domain
The cognitive domain is one of the best known educational domains. It includes remembering specific facts (content knowledge) and
concepts that help develop intellectual abilities and skills. There are six major categories, or levels, starting from the simplest
behavior (recalling facts) to the most complex (evaluation). [Figure 3-9]
Figure 3-9. The six major levels of Bloom’s Taxonomy of the Cognitive Domain with types of behavior with objectives.
The four practical learning levels are rote, understanding, application, and correlation. [Figure 3-10] The lowest level is the ability to
repeat something which one has been taught, without understanding or being able to apply what has been learned. This is referred to
as rote learning. The fact level is a single concept. The key verbs which describe or measure this activity are words such as define,
identify, and label. The comprehension or understanding level puts two or more concepts together and uses verbs such as describe,
estimate, or explain. The application level puts two or more concepts together to form something new. Typical verbs at this level
include “determine,” “develop,” and “solve.”