Text-only reference. Published from the recorded official FAA Chapter 4 PDF. Diagrams, photographs, and figure artwork are not reproduced here; use the official FAA PDF for those materials.
4-12 NS + − Field rheostat Field winding Load A B NS + − Field rheostat Field winding Load Shunt circuit Main circuit Armature winding ArmatureField coils the leads between the transformer coils and the spark plugs of a low-tension ignition system are short, they are high-tension high-voltage conductor, and are subject to the same failures that occur in high-tension systems. Low-tension ignition systems have limited use in modern aircraft because of the excellent materials and shielding available to construct high- tension ignition leads and the added cost of a coil for each spark plug with the low-tension system.
Types of DC Generators
There are three types of DC generators: series wound, parallel (shunt) wound, and series-parallel (compound) wound. The appropriate generator is determined by the connections to the armature and field circuits with respect to the external circuit. The external circuit is the electrical load powered by the generator. In general, the external circuit is used for charging the aircraft battery and supplying power to all electrical equipment being used by the aircraft. As their names imply, windings in series have characteristics different from windings in parallel.
Series Wound DC Generators
The series generator contains a field winding connected in series with the external circuit. [Figure 4-21] Series generators have very poor voltage regulation under changing load, since the greater the current is through the field coils to the external circuit, the greater the induced EMFs and the greater the output voltage is. When the aircraft electrical load is increased, the voltage increases; when the load is decreased, the voltage decreases. Since the series wound generator has such poor voltage and current regulation, it is never employed as an airplane generator. Generators in airplanes have field windings, that are connected either in shunt or in compound formats.
Parallel (Shunt) Wound DC Generators
A generator having a field winding connected in parallel with the external circuit is called a shunt generator. [Figure 4-22] It should be noted that, in electrical terms, shunt means parallel. Therefore, this type of generator could be called either a shunt generator or a parallel generator. In a shunt generator, any increase in load causes a decrease in the output voltage, and any decrease in load causes an increase output voltage. This occurs since the field winding is connected in parallel to the load and armature, and all the current flowing in the external circuit passes only through the armature winding (not the field).
As shown in Figure 4-22A, the output voltage of a shunt generator can be controlled by means of a rheostat inserted in series with the field windings. As the resistance of the field circuit is increased, the field current is reduced; consequently, the generated voltage is also reduced. As the field resistance is decreased, the field current increases and the generator output increases. In the actual aircraft, the field rheostat would be replaced with an automatic control device, such 4-13 A B NS + − Series field winding Parallel field winding Load Armature winding Series field coil To load Armature Shunt field coil Compound wound as a voltage regulator.
Compound Wound DC Generators
A compound wound generator employs two field windings one in series and another in parallel with the load. [Figure 4-23] This arrangement takes advantage of both the series and parallel characteristics described earlier. The output of a compound wound generator is relatively constant, even with changes in the load.
Generator Ratings
A DC generator is typically rated for its voltage and power output. Each generator is designed to operate at a specified voltage, approximately 14 or 28 volts. It should be noted that aircraft electrical systems are designed to operate at one of these two voltage values. The aircraft’s voltage depends on which battery is selected for that aircraft. Batteries are either 12 or 24 volts when fully charged. The generator selected must have a voltage output slightly higher than the battery voltage. Hence, the 14- or 28-volt rating is required for aircraft DC generators. The power output of any generator is given as the maximum number of amperes the generator can safely supply. Generator rating and performance data are stamped on the nameplate attached to the generator. When replacing a generator, it is important to choose one of the proper ratings.
The rotation of generators is termed either clockwise or counterclockwise, as viewed from the driven end. The direction of rotation may also be stamped on the data plate. It is important that a generator with the correct rotation be used; otherwise, the polarity of the output voltage is reversed. The speed of an aircraft engine varies from idle rpm to takeoff rpm; however, during the major portion of a flight, it is at a constant cruising speed. The generator drive is usually geared to turn the generator between 1 1⁄8 and 11⁄2 times the engine crankshaft speed. Most aircraft generators have a speed at which they begin to produce their normal voltage. Called the “coming in” speed, it is usually about 1,500 rpm.
DC Generator Maintenance
The following information about the inspection and maintenance of DC generator systems is general in nature because of the large number of differing aircraft generator systems. These procedures are for familiarization only. Always follow the applicable manufacturer’s instructions for a given generator system. In general, the inspection of the generator installed in the aircraft should include the following items: 1. Security of generator mounting. 2. Condition of electrical connections. 3. Dirt and oil in the generator. If oil is present, check engine oil seals. Blow out any dirt with compressed air.
4. Condition of generator brushes. 5. Generator operation. 6. V oltage regulator operation. Sparking of brushes quickly reduces the effective brush area in contact with the commutator bars. The degree of such sparking should be determined. Excessive wear warrants a detailed inspection and possible replacement of various components. [Figure 4-24] Manufacturers usually recommend the following procedures to seat brushes that do not make good contact with slip rings or commutators. Lift the brush sufficiently to permit the insertion of a strip of extra-fine 000 (triple aught) grit, or finer, sandpaper under the brush, rough side towards the carbon brush. [Figure 4-25] Pull the sandpaper in the direction of armature rotation, being careful to keep the ends of the sandpaper as close to the slip ring or commutator surface as possible in order to avoid rounding the edges of the brush. When pulling the sandpaper back to the starting point, raise the brush so it does not ride 4-14 Unseated brush 000 sandpaper (sand side next to brush) Properly seated brush 1/32" to 1/16" on the sandpaper. Sand the brush only in the direction of rotation. Carbon dust resulting from brush sanding should be thoroughly cleaned from all parts of the generators after a sanding operation.
After the generator has run for a short period, brushes should be inspected to make sure that pieces of sand have not become embedded in the brush. Under no circumstances should emery cloth or similar abrasives be used for seating brushes (or smoothing commutators), since they contain conductive materials that cause arcing between brushes and commutator bars. It is important that the brush spring pressure be correct. Excessive pressure causes rapid wear of brushes. Too little pressure, however, allows bouncing of the brushes, resulting in burned and pitted surfaces. The pressure recommended by the manufacturer should be checked by the use of a spring scale graduated in ounces. Brush spring tension on some generators can be adjusted. A spring scale is used to measure the pressure that a brush exerts on the commutator.
Flexible low-resistance pigtails are provided on most heavy current carrying brushes, and their connections should be securely made and checked at frequent intervals. The pigtails should never be permitted to alter or restrict the free motion of the brush. The purpose of the pigtail is to conduct the current from the armature, through the brushes, to the external circuit of the generator.
FADEC System Description
A FADEC is a solid-state digital electronic ignition and electronic sequential port fuel injection system with only one moving part that consists of the opening and closing of the fuel injector. FADEC continuously monitors and controls ignition, timing, and fuel mixture/delivery/injection, and spark ignition as an integrated control system. FADEC monitors engine operating conditions (crankshaft speed, top dead center position, the induction manifold pressure, and the induction air temperature) and then automatically adjusts the fuel-to-air ratio mixture and ignition timing accordingly for any given power setting to attain optimum engine performance. As a result, engines equipped with FADEC require neither magnetos nor manual mixture control.
This microprocessor-based system controls ignition timing for engine starting and varies timing with respect to engine speed and manifold pressure. [Figure 4-26] PowerLink provides control in both specified operating conditions and fault conditions. The system is designed to prevent adverse changes in power or thrust. In the event of loss of primary aircraft-supplied power, the engine controls continue to operate using a secondary power source (SPS). As a control device, the system performs self-diagnostics to determine overall system status and conveys this information to the pilot by various indicators on the health status annunciator (HSA) panel. PowerLink is able to withstand storage temperature extremes and operate at the same capacity as a non-FADEC-equipped engine in extreme heat, cold, and high humidity environments.
Low-Voltage Harness
The low-voltage harness connects all essential components of the FADEC System. [Figure 4-26] This harness acts as a signal transfer bus interconnecting the electronic control 4-15 Low voltage harness High voltage harness Electronic control unit (ECU) units (ECUs) with aircraft power sources, the ignition switch, speed sensor assembly (SSA), temperature and pressure sensors. The fuel injector coils and all sensors, except the SSA and fuel pressure and manifold pressure sensors, are hardwired to the low-voltage harness. This harness transmits sensor inputs to the ECUs through a 50-pin connector. The harness connects to the engine-mounted pressure sensors via cannon plug connectors. The 25-jpin connectors connect the harness to the speed sensor signal conditioning unit.
The low-voltage harness attaches to the cabin harness by a firewall-mounted data port through the same cabin harness/ bulkhead connector assembly. The bulkhead connectors also supply the aircraft electrical power required to run the system. The ECU is at the heart of the system, providing both ignition and fuel injection control to operate the engine with the maximum efficiency realizable. Each ECU contains two microprocessors, referred to as a computer, that control two cylinders. Each computer controls its own assigned cylinder and is capable of providing redundant control for the other computer’s cylinder.
The computer constantly monitors the engine speed and timing pulses developed from the camshaft gear as they are detected by the SSA. Knowing the exact engine speed and the timing sequence of the engine, the computers monitor the manifold air pressure and manifold air temperature to calculate air density and determine the mass air flow into the cylinder during the intake stroke. The computers calculate the percentage of engine power based on engine revolutions per minute (rpm) and manifold air pressure. From this information, the computer can then determine the fuel required for the combustion cycle for either best power or best economy mode of operation. The computer precisely times the injection event, and the duration of the injector should be on time for the correct fuel-to-air ratio. Then, the computer sets the spark ignition event and ignition timing, again based on percentage of power calculation. Exhaust gas temperature is measured after the burn to verify that the fuel-to-air ratio calculations were correct for that combustion event. This process is repeated by each computer for its own assigned cylinder on every combustion/power cycle.
The computers can also vary the amount of fuel to control the fuel-to-air ratio for each individual cylinder to control both cylinder head temperature (CHT) and exhaust gas temperature (EGT).
Electronic Control Unit (ECU)
An ECU is assigned to a pair of engine cylinders. [Figure 4-27] The ECUs control the fuel mixture and spark timing for their respective engine cylinders; ECU 1 controls opposing cylinders 1 and 2, ECU 2 controls cylinders 3 and 4, and ECU 4-16 3 controls cylinders 5 and 6. Each ECU is divided into upper and lower portions. The lower portion contains an electronic circuit board, while the upper portion houses the ignition coils. Each electronic control board contains two independent microprocessor controllers that serve as control channels. During engine operation, one control channel is assigned to operate a single engine cylinder. Therefore, one ECU can control two engine cylinders, one control channel per cylinder.
The control channels are independent, and there are no shared electronic components within one ECU. They also operate on independent and separate power supplies. However, if one control channel fails, the other control channel in the pair within the same ECU is capable of operating both its assigned cylinder and the other opposing engine cylinder as backup control for fuel injection and ignition timing. Each control channel on the ECU monitors the current operating conditions and operates its cylinder to attain engine operation within specified parameters. The following transmit inputs to the control channels across the low-voltage harness: 1. Speed sensor that monitors engine speed and crank position, 2. Fuel pressure sensors, 3. Manifold pressure sensors, 4. Manifold air temperature (MAT) sensors, 5. CHT sensors, and 6. EGT sensors.
All critical sensors are dually redundant with one sensor from each type of pair connected to control channels in different ECUs. Synthetic software default values are also used in the unlikely event that both sensors of a redundant pair fail. The control channel continuously monitors changes in engine speed, manifold pressure, manifold temperature, and fuel pressure based on sensor input relative to operating conditions to determine how much fuel to inject into the intake port of the cylinder.
PowerLink Ignition System
The ignition system consists of the high-voltage coils atop the ECU, the high-voltage harness, and spark plugs. Since there are two spark plugs per cylinder on all engines, a six-cylinder engine has 12 leads and 12 spark plugs. One end of each lead on the high-voltage harness attaches to a spark plug, and the other end of the lead wire attaches to the spark plug towers on each ECU. The spark tower pair is connected to opposite ends of one of the ECU’s coil packs. Two coil packs are located in the upper portion of the ECU. Each coil pack generates a high-voltage pulse for two spark plug towers. One tower fires a positive polarity pulse and the other of the same coil fires a negative polarity pulse. Each ECU controls the ignition spark for two engine cylinders. The control channel within each ECU commands one of the two coil packs to control the ignition spark for the engine cylinders. [Figure 4-28] The high-voltage harness carries energy from the ECU spark towers to the spark plugs on the engine.
For both spark plugs in a given cylinder to fire on the compression stroke, both control channels must fire their coil packs. Each coil pack has a spark plug from each of the two cylinders controlled by that ECU unit. The ignition spark is timed to the engine’s crankshaft position. The timing is variable throughout the engine’s operating range and is dependent upon the engine load conditions. The spark energy is also varied with respect to the engine load. Note: Engine ignition timing is established by the ECUs and cannot be manually adjusted.
Engine Indicating & Crew Alerting System
(EICAS) An engine indicating and crew alerting system (EICAS) performs many of the same functions as an ECAM system. The objective is still to monitor the aircraft systems for the pilot. All EICAS display engine, as well as airframe, parameters. Traditional gauges are not utilized, other than a standby combination engine gauge in case of total system failure. EICAS is also a two-monitor, two-computer system with a display select panel. Both monitors receive information from the same computer. The second computer serves as a standby. Digital and analog inputs from the engine and airframe systems are continuously monitored. Caution and warning lights, as well as aural tones, are incorporated. [Figure 4-29] EICAS provides full time primary engine parameters (EPR, N1, EGT) on the top, primary monitor. Advisories and warnings are also shown there. Secondary engine parameters 4-17 Top spark plug Bottom spark plug Cylinder No. 1 Cylinder No. 2 Coil Pack 1 Coil Pack 2 CH A NN E L 1 CH A NN E L 2 Electronic Control Unit 1 and nonengine system status are displayed on the bottom screen. The lower screen is also used for maintenance diagnosis when the aircraft is on the ground. Color coding is used, as well as message prioritizing.
The display select panel allows the pilot to choose which computer is actively supplying information. It also controls the display of secondary engine information and system status displays on the lower monitor. EICAS has a unique feature that automatically records the parameters of a failure event to be regarded afterwards by maintenance personnel. Pilots that suspect a problem may be occurring during flight can press the event record button on the display select panel. This also records the parameters for that flight period to be studied later by maintenance. Hydraulic, electrical, environmental, performance, and APU data are examples of what may be recorded.
EICAS uses BITE for systems and components. A maintenance panel is included for technicians. From this panel, when the aircraft is on the ground, push-button switches display information pertinent to various systems for analysis. [Figure 4-30]
Auxiliary Ignition Units
During engine starting, the output of a magneto is low because the cranking speed of the engine is low. This is understandable when the factors that determine the amount of voltage induced in a circuit are considered. To increase the value of an induced voltage, the strength of the magnetic field must be increased by using a stronger magnet, by increasing the number of turns in the coil, or by increasing the rate of relative motion between the magnet and the conductor. Since the strength of the rotating magnet and the number of turns in the coil are constant factors in magneto ignition systems, the voltage produced depends upon the speed at which the rotating magnet is turned. When the engine is being cranked for starting, the magnet is rotated at about 80 rpm. Since the value of the induced voltage is so low, a spark may not jump the spark plug gap. To facilitate engine starting, an auxiliary device is connected to the magneto to provide a high ignition voltage.
Ordinarily, such auxiliary ignition units are energized by the battery and connected to the left magneto. Reciprocating engine starting systems normally include one of the following types of auxiliary starting systems: booster coil (older style), starting vibrator (sometimes called shower of sparks), impulse coupling, or electronic ignition systems. During the starting cycle, the engine is turning very slowly compared to normal speed. The ignition must be retarded or moved back to prevent kickback of the piston trying to 4-18 Standy engine indicators Aural warning Upper DU Lower DU Warning & cautions Engine primary displays Engine secondary or status display or maintenance display Discrete caution & warning lights R computer L computer Display switching Maintenance panel Display select panel Other system discretes FCC MCDP TMC interface FEC interface FMC interface RAD Altitude interface ADC interface Engine sensors N1 Oil press N2 Oil quantity N3 Oil temperature EPR Vibration EGT FF System sensors Hydraulic quantity & press ADC hydraulic system temperature Control surface positions Electical system: volts amps freq Generator drive temperature ECS temps APU EGT. RPM Brake temperature Data buses rotate opposite normal rotation. Each starting system has a method of retarding the spark during starting of the engine.
Booster Coil
Used mainly with older radial engine ignition systems, the booster coil assembly consists of two coils wound on a soft iron core, a set of contact points, and a condenser. [Figure 4-31] The booster coil is separate from the magneto and can generate a series of sparks on its own. During the start cycle, these sparks are routed to the trailing finger on the distributor rotor and then to the appropriate cylinder ignition lead. The primary winding has one end grounded at the internal grounding strip and its other end connected to the moving contact point. The stationary contact is fitted with a terminal to which battery voltage is applied when the magneto switch is placed in the start position, or automatically applied when the starter is engaged. The secondary winding, which contains several times as many turns as the primary coil, has one end grounded at the internal grounding strip and the other terminated at a high-tension terminal. The high-tension terminal is connected to an electrode in the distributor by an ignition cable.
Since the regular distributor terminal is grounded through the primary or secondary coil of a high-tension magneto, the high-voltage furnished by the booster coil must be distributed by a separate circuit in the distributor rotor. This is accomplished by using two electrodes in one distributor rotor. The main electrode, or finger, carries the magneto output voltage; the auxiliary electrode or trailing finger, distributes only the output of the booster coil. The auxiliary electrode is always located so that it trails the main electrode, thus retarding the spark during the starting period.