Introduction
As previously discussed in Chapter 1, commercially rated balloon pilots have the additional responsibility and privilege
of providing instruction to aspiring student pilots, without the benefit of having a certified flight instructor (CFI) rating.
This is unique to balloon pilots, as all other aircraft pilots require instruction by a CFI in order to achieve their certificate.
Flight training, whether in an airplane, helicopter, or a balloon, should be conducted in a complete and thorough manner
in order to prepare the student pilot to safely conduct flight operations throughout the entire spectrum of scenarios. An ill-
prepared instructor can produce only an ill-prepared student. A well-prepared instructor produces a well-prepared student,
and they reap the additional benefit of showing the student how instruction should be conducted. That pilot, in later stages,
reflects on their own training and probably conducts future training in the same manner.
The flight instructor is the central figure in aviation training and is responsible for all phases of required training. The
instructor must be fully qualified as an aviation professional; however, the instructor’s ability must go far beyond this if
the requirements of professionalism are to be met. Although the word “professionalism” is widely used, it is rarely defined.
In fact, no single definition can encompass all of the qualifications and considerations that must be present before true
professionalism can exist.
When discussing professionalism, most conversations omit any reference to the accountability of the instructor. An
individual who takes on the responsibility of providing flight instruction must realize that they have a significant influence
on the habits and actions of the student as a pilot. All of the student’s impressions and perceptions towards the flight
experience, balloon operations, and, most importantly, safety is drawn from the instructor’s methods. It becomes imperative
that the instructor understand that they, by default, actively and passively contribute to the future actions of the student
and should make every effort to provide the most thorough training experience possible. It can be said that many students
become “clones” of their instructor.
Though not all inclusive, the following list gives some major considerations and qualifications that should be included in
the definition of professionalism.
• Professionalism exists only when a service is performed for someone or for the common good.
• Professionalism is achieved only after extended training and preparation.
• True performance as a professional is based on study and research.
• Professionalism requires the ability to make good judgment decisions. Professionals cannot limit their actions and
decisions to standard patterns and practices.
• Professionalism demands a code of ethics. Professionals must be true to themselves and to those they serve. Anything
less than a sincere performance is quickly detected by the student and immediately destroys instructor effectiveness.
• Professionalism requires that the individual instructor be able to conduct a self-assessment. A true professional
must be able to critique their own performance with objectivity.
Flight instructors should carefully consider this list. Failing to meet these qualities may result in poor performance by both
instructor and student. Preparation and performance as an instructor with these qualities in mind commands recognition as
a professional in aviation instruction. Professionalism includes an instructor’s public image.
A more complete discussion of the information contained in this chapter may be found in FAA-H-8083-9, Aviation
Instructor’s Handbook. There have been some minor changes in this chapter to address the specific aspects of balloon
Chapter 10: The Instructional Process
flight training. For expanded discussions of the areas of operation covered in the Commercial Pilot Practical Test Standards
(PTS), (FAA-S-8081-18), the Aviation Instructor’s Handbook is required reading. Commercial pilots who wish to excel
at the instruction process may consider taking the Fundamentals of Instruction knowledge test administered through
the FAA’s knowledge testing program. While not a mandatory requirement, it is believed that the study necessary to
successfully complete this exam assists the pilot/instructor in acquiring the knowledge necessary to plan and perform
proper aviation training.
For the remainder of this chapter, it should be understood that the term “flight instructor” is meant to define those individuals
who hold a commercial pilot certificate with a free balloon category rating. This chapter also makes the presupposition that
virtually all balloon flight training is performed “one on one,” and not as part of a group environment.
Flight Instructor Characteristics & Responsibilities
Students look to flight instructors as authorities in their respective areas. It is important that flight instructors not only know
how to teach, but they also need to project a knowledgeable and professional image. In addition, flight instructors are on
the front lines of efforts to improve the safety record of the industry. This section addresses the scope of responsibilities for
flight instructors and enumerates methods they can use to enhance their professional image and conduct.
Negative motivation may engender fear, and be perceived by the student as a threat. While negative motivation may be
useful in certain situations, characteristically it is not as effective in promoting efficient learning as positive motivation.
Instructor Responsibilities
The job of a flight instructor, or any instructor, is to teach. The learning process can be made easier by helping students
learn, providing adequate instruction, demanding adequate standards of performance, and emphasizing the positive.
[Figure 10-1]
Helping students learn
Providing adequate instruction
Demanding adequate standards of performance
Emphasizing the positive
Figure 10-1. The four main responsibilities for flight instructors
Helping Students Learn
Learning should be an enjoyable experience. By making each lesson a pleasurable experience for the student, the instructor
can maintain a high level of student motivation. This does not mean the instructor must make things easy for the student
or sacrifice standards of performance to please the student. The student experiences satisfaction from doing a good job or
from successfully meeting the challenge of a difficult task.
Learning should be interesting. Knowing the objectives, in clear and concise terms, of each period of instruction gives
meaning and interest to the student, as well as the instructor. Not knowing the objective of the lesson often leads to
confusion, disinterest, and uneasiness on the part of the student.
Learning to fly should be a habit-building period during which the student devotes their attention, memory, and judgment
to the development of correct habits. Any objective other than to learn the right way is likely to make students impatient.
The instructor should keep the students focused on good habits both by example and by a logical presentation of learning
tasks.
Providing Adequate Instruction
The flight instructor should attempt to carefully and correctly analyze the student’s personality, thinking, and ability. No
two students are alike, and no one method of instruction can be equally effective for each student. The instructor must talk
with a student at some length to learn about the student’s background interests, temperament, and way of thinking. The
instructor’s methods also may change as the student advances through successive stages of training.
An instructor who has not correctly analyzed a student may soon find that the instruction is not producing the desired
results. For example, this could mean that the instructor does not realize that a student is actually a quick thinker, but is
hesitant to act. Such a student may fail to act at the proper time due to lack of self-confidence, even though the situation
is correctly understood. In this case, instruction would obviously be directed toward developing student self-confidence,
rather than drill on flight fundamentals. In another case, too much criticism may completely subdue a timid person, whereas
brisk instruction may force a more diligent application to the learning task. A student may require instructional methods
that combine tact, keen perception, and delicate handling. If such a student receives too much help and encouragement, a
feeling of incompetence may develop.
Standards of Performance
Flight instructors must continuously evaluate their own effectiveness and the standard of learning and performance achieved
by their students. The desire to maintain pleasant personal relationships with the students must not cause the acceptance
of a slow rate of learning or substandard flight performance. It is a fallacy to believe that accepting lower standards to
please a student produces a genuine improvement in the student-instructor relationship. An earnest student does not resent
reasonable standards that are fairly and consistently applied.
Emphasizing the Positive
Flight instructors have a tremendous influence on their students’ perception of aviation. The way instructors conduct
themselves, the attitudes they display, and the manner in which they develop their instruction all contribute to the formation
of either positive or negative impressions by their student. The success of a flight instructor depends, in large measure, on
the ability to present instruction so that a student develops a positive image of aviation.
Most new instructors tend to adopt those teaching methods used by their own instructors. These methods may or may not
have been good. The fact that one has learned under one system of instruction does not mean that this is necessarily the
best way it can be done, regardless of the respect one retains for the ability of their original instructor. Some students learn
in spite of their instruction, rather than because of it. Emphasize the positive because positive instruction results in positive
learning.
Flight Instructor Responsibilities
All flight instructors shoulder an enormous responsibility because their students ultimately fly an aircraft. Flight instructors
have some additional responsibilities including the responsibility of evaluating student pilots and making a determination of
when they are ready to solo. Other flight instructor responsibilities are based on Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(14 CFR) part 61 and advisory circulars (ACs). [Figure 10-2]
Evaluation of student
piloting ability
Pilot supervision
Practical test
recommendations
Flight instructor
endorsements
Additional training
and endorsements
Pilot proficiency
Figure 10-2. The flight instructor has many additional responsibilities.
Evaluation of Student Piloting Ability
Evaluation is one of the most important elements of instruction. In flight instruction, the instructor initially determines
that the student understands the procedure or maneuver. Then the instructor demonstrates the maneuver, allows the student
to practice the maneuver under direction, and finally evaluates student accomplishment by observing their performance.
Evaluation of demonstrated ability during flight instruction must be based upon established standards of performance,
suitably modified to apply to the student’s experience and stage of development as a pilot. The evaluation must consider
the student’s mastery of all the elements involved in the maneuver, rather than merely the overall performance.
Correction of student errors should not include the practice of taking the controls away from students immediately when
a mistake is made. Safety permitting, it is frequently better to let students progress part of the way into the mistake and
find their own way out. It is difficult for students to learn to do a maneuver properly if they seldom have the opportunity to
correct an error. On the other hand, students may perform a procedure or maneuver correctly and not fully understand the
principles and objectives involved. When the instructor suspects this, students should be required to vary the performance
of the maneuver slightly, combine it with other operations, or apply the same elements to the performance of other
maneuvers. Students who do not understand the principles involved probably are not able to do this successfully.
Student Pilot Supervision
Flight instructors have the responsibility to provide guidance and restraint with respect to the solo operations of their
students. This is by far the most important flight instructor responsibility because the instructor is the only person in a
position to make the determination that a student is ready for solo operations. Before endorsing a student for solo flight,
the instructor should require the student to demonstrate consistent ability to perform all of the fundamental maneuvers.
Practical Test Recommendations
Provisions are made on the airman certificate or rating application form for the written recommendation of the flight
instructor who has prepared the applicant for the practical test involved. Signing this recommendation imposes a serious
responsibility on the flight instructor. A flight instructor who makes a practical test recommendation for an applicant
seeking a certificate or rating should require the applicant to thoroughly demonstrate the knowledge and skill level required
for that certificate or rating. This demonstration should in no instance be less than the complete procedure prescribed in
the applicable PTS.
A practical test recommendation based on anything less risks the presentation of an applicant who may be unprepared for
some part of the actual practical test. In such an event, the flight instructor is logically held accountable for a deficient
instructional performance. This risk is especially great in signing recommendations for applicants who have not been
trained by the instructor involved. For balloons, 14 CFR part 61 requires a minimum of two training flights of one hour
each with an authorized instructor within 60 days preceding the date of the test for a private or commercial certificate. The
instructor signing the endorsement is required to have conducted the training in the applicable areas of operation stated
in the regulations and the PTS, and certifies that the person is prepared for the required practical test. In most cases, the
conscientious instructor has little doubt concerning the applicant’s readiness for the practical test.
FAA inspectors and designated pilot examiners rely on flight instructor recommendations as evidence of qualification for
certification, and proof that a review has been given of the subject areas found to be deficient on the appropriate knowledge
test. Recommendations also provide assurance that the applicant has had a thorough briefing on the practical test standards
and the associated knowledge areas, maneuvers, and procedures. If the flight instructor has trained and prepared the
applicant competently, the applicant should have no problem passing the practical test.
The recommended format for log book endorsements may be found in the current version of AC 61-65; an extract of those
relevant to balloon instruction may be found in Appendix E.
Self-Improvement
Professional flight instructors must never become complacent or satisfied with their own qualifications and abilities.
They should be constantly alert for ways to improve their qualifications, effectiveness, and the services they provide to
students. Flight instructors are considered authorities on aeronautical matters and are the experts to whom many pilots refer
questions concerning regulations, requirements, and new operating techniques.
Sincerity
The professional instructor should be straightforward and honest. Attempting to hide some inadequacy behind a
smokescreen of unrelated instruction makes it impossible for the instructor to command the respect and full attention of a
student. Teaching an aviation student is based upon acceptance of the instructor as a competent, qualified teacher and an
expert pilot. Any facade of instructor pretentiousness, whether it is real or mistakenly assumed by the student, immediately
causes the student to lose confidence in the instructor and learning is adversely affected.
Acceptance of the Student
With regard to students, the instructor must accept them as they are, including all their faults and problems. The student
is a person who wants to learn, and the instructor is a person who is available to help in the learning process. Beginning
with this understanding, the professional relationship of the instructor with the student should be based on a mutual
acknowledgement that the student and the instructor are important to each other, and that both are working toward the
same objective.
Personal Appearance and Habits
Personal appearance has an important effect on the professional image of the instructor. Today’s aviation customers expect
their instructors to be neat, clean, and appropriately dressed. Since the instructor is engaged in a learning situation, the
attire worn should be appropriate to a professional status. [Figure 10-3]
Figure 10-3. The flight instructor should always present a professional appearance.
Personal habits have a significant effect on the professional image. The exercise of common courtesy is perhaps the most
important of these.
Demeanor
The attitude and behavior of the instructor can contribute much to a professional image. The professional image requires
development of a calm, thoughtful, and disciplined, but not somber, demeanor.
The instructor should also present an attitude of enthusiasm, with respect to the training conducted, whether ground or
flight. The enthusiasm expressed by the instructor is normally reflected in the student’s response to the training, and makes
it a much more enjoyable experience for all parties concerned.
Safety Practices and Accident Prevention
The safety practices emphasized by instructors have a long lasting effect on students. Generally, students consider their
instructor to be a model of perfection whose habits they attempt to imitate, whether consciously or unconsciously. The
instructor’s advocacy and description of safety practices mean little to a student if the instructor does not demonstrate
them consistently. For this reason, instructors must meticulously observe the safety practices being taught to students. A
good example is the use of a checklist before takeoff. If a student pilot sees the flight instructor layout, inflate, and take
off in a balloon without referring to a checklist, no amount of instruction in the use of a checklist convinces that student to
faithfully use one when solo flight operations begin.
To maintain a professional image, a flight instructor must carefully observe all regulations and recognized safety practices
during flight operations. An instructor who is observed to fly with apparent disregard for loading limitations or weather
minimums creates an image of irresponsibility that many hours of scrupulous flight instruction can never correct.
Habitual observance of regulations, safety precautions, and the precepts of courtesy enhances the instructor’s image of
professionalism. Moreover, such habits make the instructor more effective by encouraging students to develop similar
habits.
Proper Language
In aviation instruction, as in other professional activities, the use of profanity and obscene language leads to distrust or, at
best, to a lack of complete confidence in the instructor. To many people, such language is actually objectionable to the point
of being painful. The professional instructor must speak normally, without inhibitions, and develop the ability to speak
positively and descriptively without excesses of language.
Also consider that the beginning aviation student is being introduced to new concepts and experiences and encountering
new terms and phrases that are often confusing. At the beginning of the student’s training, and before each lesson during
early instruction, the instructor should carefully define the terms and phrases to be used during the lesson. The instructor
should then be careful to limit instruction to those terms and phrases, unless the exact meaning and intent of any new
expression are explained immediately. In all cases, terminology should be explained to the student before it is used during
instruction.
The Learning Process
To learn is to acquire knowledge or skill. Learning also may involve a change in attitude or behavior. Pilots need to acquire
the higher levels of knowledge and skill, including the ability to exercise judgment and solve problems. The challenge for
the flight instructor is to understand how people learn, and more importantly, to be able to apply that knowledge to the
learning environment. [Figure 10-4]
Purposeful
Result of experience
Multifaceted
Active process
Characteristics of Learning
Figure 10-4. Effective learning shares several common characteristics.
Definition of Learning
The ability to learn is one of the most outstanding human characteristics. Learning occurs continuously throughout a
person’s lifetime. To define learning, it is necessary to analyze what happens to the individual. Thus, learning can be
defined as a change in behavior as a result of experience. This can be physical and overt, or it may involve complex
intellectual or attitudinal changes which affect behavior in more subtle ways. In spite of numerous theories and contrasting
views, psychologists generally agree on many common characteristics of learning.
Characteristics of Learning
Flight instructors need a good understanding of the general characteristics of learning in order to apply them in a learning
situation. If learning is a change in behavior as a result of experience, then instruction must include a careful and systematic
creation of those experiences that promote learning. This process can be quite complex because, among other things, an
individual’s background strongly influences the way that person learns. To be effective, the learning situation should
contain the following four points:
1. Learning is purposeful. Most people have definite ideas about what they want to do and achieve. Their goals are
sometimes short term, involving a matter of days or weeks, while others may have goals carefully planned for a
career or a lifetime. Each student, then, has specific intentions and goals. Learning, then, becomes a means to those
goals.
2. Learning is a result of experience. A student can learn only from personal experience; therefore learning and
knowledge cannot exist apart from a person. Even when observing or performing the same procedures, two people
can react differently; they learn different things from it, according to the manner in which the event affects their
individual needs.
3. Learning is multifaceted. The learning process includes verbal elements, emotional elements, and problem-solving
elements all taking place at once.
4. Learning is an active process. The individual who wishes to be proficient at a particular task or skill should
understand that they never stop learning.
Principles of Learning
• Over the years, educational psychologists have identified several principles which seem generally applicable to the
learning process. They provide additional insight into what makes people learn most effectively.
• Readiness—individuals learn best when they are ready to learn. However, they do not learn well if they see no
reason for learning. Getting students ready to learn is usually the instructor’s responsibility. If students have a strong
purpose, a clear objective, and a definite reason for learning something, they make more progress than if they lack
motivation.
• Exercise—the principle of exercise states that those things most often repeated are best remembered. It is the basis
of drill and practice. The human memory is fallible. The mind can rarely retain, evaluate, and apply new concepts
or practices after a single exposure. Students learn by applying what they have been told and shown. Every time
practice occurs, learning continues. The instructor must provide opportunities for students to practice and, at the
same time, make sure that this process is directed toward a goal.
• Effect—based on the emotional reaction of the student. It states that learning is strengthened when accompanied
by a pleasant or satisfying feeling, and that learning is weakened when associated with an unpleasant feeling.
Experiences that produce feelings of defeat, frustration, anger, confusion, or futility are unpleasant for the student.
If, for example, an instructor attempts to teach precision maneuvering during the first flight, the student is likely to
feel inferior and be frustrated.
• Primacy—the state of being first, often creates a strong, almost unshakable, impression. For the instructor, this means
that what is taught must be right the first time. For the student, it means that learning must be right. “Unteaching”
is often more difficult than teaching. Every student should be started right. The first experience should be positive,
functional, and lay the foundation for all that is to follow.
• Intensity—a vivid, dramatic, or exciting learning experience teaches more than a routine or boring experience. A
student is likely to gain greater understanding of steep approaches or short-field, high wind landings by performing
them rather than merely reading about them. The principle of intensity implies that a student learns more from the
real thing than from a substitute.
• Recency—things most recently learned are best remembered. Conversely, the further a student is removed in time
from a new factor in understanding, the more difficult it is to remember. Instructors recognize the principle of
recency when they carefully plan a summary for a ground school lesson, a flight period, or a postflight critique.
How People Learn
Initially, all learning comes from perceptions which are directed to the brain by one or more of the five senses: sight,
hearing, touch, smell, and taste. Psychologists have also found that learning occurs most rapidly when information is
received through more than one of the senses. [Figure 10-5]