this evaluation; any change in altitude may put the balloon into a different wind flow, which requires the evaluation to be
performed again.
It can be helpful to carry a magnetic sighting compass on the flight. Identifying the bearings to a couple of distant landmarks
and comparing this to the ground track can provide useful information to the balloon pilot.
Examine Figure 3-12 in Chapter 3. If the pilot can make the mental extrapolation between known wind directions at
different altitudes and the desired direction of travel, maneuvering the balloon becomes a simple exercise in direct control,
that is, vertical movement.
Contour Flying
Contour flying may be the most fun and most challenging, but, at the same time, may also be the most hazardous and
misunderstood of all balloon flight maneuvers. A good definition of contour flying is flying safely at low altitude, while
obeying all regulations, considering persons, animals, and property on the ground. Safe contour flying means never creating
a hazard to persons in the basket or on the ground, or to any property, including the balloon. [Figure 7-7]
Figure 7-7. Contour flying.
At first glance, the definition is subjective. One person’s hazard may be another person’s fun. For instance, a person who
has never seen a balloon before may think a basket touching the surface of a lake is dangerous, while the pilot may think
a splash-and-dash is fun.
Minimum Safe Altitude Requirements
Legal contour flying has a precise definition. While the FAA has not specifically defined contour, it has specified exactly
what minimum safe altitudes are. 14 CFR part 91, section 91.119, refers to three different areas: anywhere, over congested
areas, and over other than congested areas, including open water and sparsely populated areas.
More balloonists are issued FAA violations for low flying than for any other reason. Many pilots do not understand the
minimum safe altitude regulation. Many balloonists believe the regulation was written for heavier-than-air aircraft and that
it does not apply to balloons. That is a false belief; the regulation was written to protect persons and property on the ground
and it applies to all aircraft, including balloons. Since this regulation is so important to balloonists, the following is the
applicable portion of 14 CFR part 91, section 91.119—Minimum safe altitudes: General.
“Except when necessary for takeoff or landing, no person may operate an aircraft below the following altitudes:
1. Anywhere. An altitude allowing, if a power unit fails, an emergency landing without undue hazard to persons or
property on the surface.
2. Over congested areas. Over any congested area of a city, town, or settlement, or over any open air assembly of
persons, an altitude of 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a horizontal radius of 2,000 feet of the aircraft.
3. Over other than congested areas. An altitude of 500 feet above the surface, except over open water or sparsely
populated areas. In those cases, the aircraft may not be operated closer than 500 feet to any person, vessel, vehicle,
or structure.”
14 CFR part 91, section 91.119(a) requires a pilot to fly at an altitude that allows for a power unit failure and/or an
emergency landing without undo hazards to persons or property. All aircraft should be operated so as to be safe, even in
worst-case conditions. Every good pilot is always thinking “what if...,” and should operate accordingly. This portion of the
regulation can be applied in the following way. When climbing over an obstacle, a pilot can make the balloon just clear the
obstacle, fly over it with room to spare, or give the obstacle sufficient clearance to account for a problem or miscalculation.
An obstacle can be overflown while climbing, descending, or in level flight. Descending over an obstacle gives the greatest
opportunity to misjudge clearance over an obstacle. In level flight, the danger is reduced. Hazards are minimized by
climbing. Most instructors teach minimizing the hazard by climbing when approaching an obstacle, thus giving room to
coast over the obstacle in case of a burner malfunction.
14 CFR part 91, section 91.119(b) concerns flying over congested areas, such as settlements, towns, cities, and gatherings
of people. There is no standard definition of “congested area” or “open air assembly of persons” but case law has indicated
that a subdivision or homes, constitute a congested area, as does a small rural town.
A balloon pilot must stay 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a 2,000-foot radius of the balloon. This is a
straightforward regulation and easy to understand. Note that the highest obstacle is probably an antenna, tower, or some
other tall object, not the rooftops. Two thousand feet is almost one-half mile. This portion of the regulation is often
forgotten or ignored. [Figure 7-8]
Antenna Tower1,000'
1,000'
2,000'
Figure 7-8. Minimum safe altitudes over a congested area.
A conscientious pilot includes livestock of any form—dairy cows, horses, poultry—in the 1,000-feet above rule. Domestic
animals, while not specifically mentioned in the regulations, are considered to be property; and experienced pilots know
that almost all poultry, exotic birds, swine, horses, and cows may be spooked by the overflight of a balloon. Livestock in
large fields seem to be less bothered by balloons; however, it is always a good idea to stay at least 1,000 feet away from
domestic animals. This is discussed in detail on page 7-16.
14 CFR part 91, section 91.119(c) refers to two area types: sparsely populated and unpopulated. Here, the pilot must stay at
least 500 feet away from persons, vehicles, vessels, and structures. “Away from” is the key to understanding this rule. The
regulation specifies how high above the ground the pilot must be and also states the pilot may never operate closer than
500 feet. There exists a possibility for misunderstanding in interpreting the difference between congested and other than
congested, as neither of these terms are defined by the FAA regulations. As an example, operating below 1,000 feet AGL
within 2,000 feet of a congested area is in violation of 14 CFR part 91, section 91.119(b), even though the bordering area
may be used only for agricultural purposes. Therefore, when flying over unpopulated land near a housing tract, the balloon
must fly either above 1,000 feet AGL or be 2,000 feet away from the houses.
To stay 500 feet away from an isolated farmhouse, imagine a 1,000-foot diameter clear hemisphere centered over the
building. [Figure 7-9] If the balloon is 400 feet away from the structure on the horizontal plane, the balloon pilot only need
fly about 300 feet AGL to be 500 feet away from it. If the balloon passes directly over the building, then there must be a
minimum of 500 feet above the rooftop, chimney, or television antenna to be legal.
500 feet
500 feet
500 feet
500 feet
500 feet
Figure 7-9. Minimum safe altitude over a sparsely populated area.
In summary, regulations require:
1. Flying high enough to be safe if a problem occurs.
2. 1,000 feet above the highest obstacle within a 2,000-foot radius above a congested area.
3. An altitude of 500 feet above the surface, except over open water or sparsely populated areas.
In those cases, the balloon may not be operated closer than 500 feet to any person, vessel, vehicle, or structure. This is an
easy to understand regulation that requires compliance from all pilots.
Contour Flying Techniques
Aside from the legal aspects, contour flying is probably the most difficult flying to perform. The balloon pilot must
see all obstacles on or near the balloon path, remember their location, and maintain situational and spatial awareness.
Terrain or obstacle height must be estimated and allowed for, and the pilot must always be prepared for an unexpected
situation. A relationship must be established between the balloon altitude and the terrain or obstacle height. All these
mental calculations must occur in a few seconds, in a continuous cycle, as the pilot executes a complicated flight profile.
The balloon practical test standards (PTS) asks the applicant to demonstrate contour flying by using all flight controls
properly to maintain the desired altitude based on the appropriate clearance over terrain and obstacles, consistent with
safety. The pilot must consider the effects of wind gusts, wind shear, thermal activity and orographic conditions, and allow
adequate clearance for livestock and other animals.
Since most contour flying is done in unpopulated areas, the balloon is rarely higher than 300 feet AGL and frequently
much lower; therefore, the balloon’s flight instruments are seldom observed. Because mechanical instruments have several
seconds lag and electronic instruments are very sensitive, pilots must rely on their observation and judgment.
When flying at low altitude, the pilot must be vigilant for obstacles, especially powerlines and traffic, and not rely solely
on instruments inside the basket. The pilot should always face the direction of travel, especially at low altitude. The pilot’s
feet and shoulders should be facing forward. The pilot should turn only their head from side to side (not the entire body)
to gauge altitude and to detect or confirm climbs and descents. Facing the direction of flight cannot be overemphasized;
there are many National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) and FAA accident reports describing balloon contacts with
ground obstacles because the pilot was looking in another direction.
Contour flying requires somewhat shorter burns than the standard burn. To fly at low altitudes requires half or quarter
burns. One disadvantage in using small burns is the possibility of losing track of the heat being created. Precise altitude
control requires special burner techniques. Another hazard of a series of too small burns is the accumulation of added heat
before the effects of the last burn have been evaluated. The balloon actually responds to a burn 6 to 15 seconds after the
burner is used.
One technique to determine if the balloon is ascending, flying level, or descending is to sight potential obstacles in the
flightpath of the balloon, such as the power lines shown in Figure 7-10. As the balloon approaches the wires, the pilot
should determine how the wires (or other obstacles) are moving in their field of vision relative to the background. If they
are moving up in the pilot’s field of vision (shown by the red arrow), or staying stationary, then the balloon is on a descent
that may place the pilot and passengers at risk. Conversely, if the wires are moving down in the pilot’s field of vision (as
indicated by the green arrow), then the balloon is either in level flight or ascending, and able to clear the obstacle.
Figure 7-10. The movement of the power lines either up or down in the pilot’ s field of vision can indicate whether or not the balloon
has sufficient obstacle clearance.
Some favorite sighting objects are a power pole as the near object and the line of a road, field, or orchard as the far object—
lines may be observed moving up and down the poles. Water towers with checkerboard or striped markings are also good
sighting objects. Vigilance is required for constant scanning of the terrain along the flight path, and the pilot must be alert
to avoid becoming fixated on sighting objects. Again, the pilot should look where they are going, not where they have
been. When flying in proximity to other balloons, particularly at lower altitudes, it is easy to become fixated on the other
balloon(s) and attempt to follow their lead. The balloon pilot should remember to fly their balloon and let the other pilots
fly theirs.
The particular pleasures of contour flying can best be enjoyed in a balloon. It is wonderful to fly at low level over the trees,
drop down behind an orchard, float across a pond just off the water, watch jackrabbits scatter—see sights up close. No
other aircraft can perform low level contour flying as safely as in a balloon, and in no other aircraft is the flight as beautiful.
Contour flying can be great fun, but remember that the balloon should always be flown at legal, safe, and considerate
altitudes.
Contour Flying Cautions—Aborted Landings
The line between contour flying and unsafe, inconsiderate, and misunderstood practices can sometimes be very fine.
Observers often misinterpret aborted landings on the ground as buzzing or rude flying. Sometimes landing sites seem to be
elusive. A typical situation is the pilot descending to land at an appropriate site, but miscalculating the winds below and the
balloon turns away from the open field toward a farmhouse. The farmer sees the balloon descend, turn towards the house,
and, with noisy burners roaring, zoom back into the air and proceed. The pilot was not being rude or inconsiderate, just
inexperienced. The pilot did not mean to swoop down to buzz the house; the wind had changed. If the pilot had watched
something drop from the basket to gauge the winds below or been more observant, the pilot would have known the balloon
would turn towards the house as it descended. A squirt of shaving foam from an aerosol can or a small piece of rolled up
tissue could have alerted the pilot of the different wind at lower altitudes.
Two or three of these swoops over a sparsely populated area, and people on the ground may not only think the pilot is
buzzing houses, some people may think the pilot is having a problem and is in trouble. That is when the well-meaning
landowner calls the police to report a “balloon in trouble.” Flying too close to a house (a friend’s house, for example) to
say hello, dragging the field, or giving people a thrill by flying too low over a gathering are examples of buzzing, which
is illegal and can be hazardous.
Use of Instruments
14 CFR part 31 and the balloon manufacturers’ equipment lists specify certain instruments to be in the balloon. However,
most pilots find they use instruments less and less as they gain experience and familiarity with the balloon.
For instance, while the VSI and the altimeter can be used to execute a smooth descent and transition to level flight,
the experienced pilot refers only occasionally to the instruments during maneuvers. This is especially so in maneuvers
involving descents where more reliance is placed on sight pictures and visual references.
Some beginner pilots become fixated on the instruments and forget to scan outside for obstacles. If a pilot spends too much
time looking at the flight instruments, the instructor may cover the instrument pack with a spare glove or a hand to try
to break the formation of a bad habit. Instruments are required and useful, but should not distract the pilot from obstacle
avoidance. Always practice see-and-avoid.
In Flight Emergencies
An emergency is a sudden, unexpected situation or occurrence that requires immediate action. In aviation, an emergency is
a critical, possibly life-threatening or property-threatening occurrence that may require outside assistance. In an emergency,
the pilot may violate any regulation as necessary to safely resolve the emergency, but must be prepared to justify their
actions.
Because of its basic simplicity, there are few catastrophic failures or emergencies in a hot air balloon. Virtually all
emergency situations involving balloons can be grouped into three categories:
• Loss/malfunction of vent or deflation line.
• Loss/malfunction of pilot light.
• Fuel leak.
Loss/Malfunction of Vent or Deflation Line
This is usually thought of as a loss of the envelope valve control line. This could occur after a particularly windy inflation,
during which the pilot has inadvertently burned through the control line and failed to notice it prior to launch. Another
variation could be a control line stuck in a guide pulley, preventing the pilot from being able to control the parachute vent.
Regardless of the reason, loss of a control line must be handled. A pilot experiencing this problem must be prepared to land
the balloon with a minimal amount of control, as they have use only of the burner to affect the descent. The pilot should
maintain minimum altitudes and land in the largest area possible. If a high wind landing is expected, the pilot should
anticipate rebound and dragging after touchdown; the pilot also needs to consider the prospect of deliberately landing the
balloon in a less than desirable area in order to avoid potential power line contacts.
Loss/Malfunction of Pilot Light
Hot air balloon burner pilot lights are extremely reliable; however, they do fail at times. This is usually caused by a failure
in the valve controlling the pilot light, or clogging of the orifice in the pilot regulator due to contamination in the fuel
supplying the pilot light.
In a dual burner system, the failure of a pilot light is not a serious issue, as the balloon can still be controlled through the
use of the second burner. The pilot may attempt to relight the pilot light by using both burners at the same time. To some
extent, the pilot may be able to utilize this procedure to fly the balloon until able to land in a suitable location, should the
extinguished pilot light not relight.
Pilot light failure in a single burner balloon is of more concern, as the pilot’s options for continued flight are reduced. The
pilot needs to take immediate action to relight the pilot light, either through the use of a piezoelectric igniter (if equipped),
or by using a striker or other ignition source. Many balloon burners are not designed to be conveniently relit while standing
in the basket; this should be practiced on a periodic basis by the pilot, at a minimum during flight reviews. Should the
pilot light not relight immediately, many burners can still be utilized by “cracking” the main blast valve very slightly, and
then lighting the fuel stream from the burner’s jets. Other sources may include the backup system fitted in that particular
balloon. The pilot may slightly open the valve controlling the backup system, and attempt to light that stream of propane.
In any case, a landing as soon as practical is probably the best course of action
Fuel Leak
Fuel leaks in flight have the potential for catastrophic results and must be acted upon immediately. Because of the design
of most balloon fuel systems, there are numerous potential “leak points” which may be the source for a fuel leak. Fuel lines
and fuel line fittings, tank valves, and blast valves all have the potential for failure, and the balloon pilot must be aware of
the various circumstances, and be prepared to deal with them.
Virtually all in-flight fuel leak emergencies in a balloon can be dealt with by shutting off the fuel source. Small fires from
leaks around a fuel line fitting may be extinguished by shutting off the fuel source and then wrapping a gloved hand around
the fitting and “snuffing” out the flame before it can spread further.
Because of the variety of systems, valve types, and differences in operations, a pilot should review the flight manual for
their particular balloon system, and be familiar with and regularly practice the emergency procedures. The previously
listed information is general in nature, and is not specific to any particular type of balloon, nor should it be taken as a
specific procedure to be followed in the event of an in-flight emergency. In all cases, the information contained in the
manufacturer’s flight manual should be followed.
In all emergencies, it is imperative that the pilot maintain control of the balloon. Many minor problems can quickly become
major problems if the pilot fails to continue to fly the balloon. Additionally, the use of a checklist for in-flight emergencies
is not appropriate. First, the pilot must resolve the situation, and then refer to an appropriate checklist or the balloon’s flight
manual to verify the appropriate action.
Tethering/Mooring
Tethering a hot air balloon, despite its apparent simplicity, is perhaps the most demanding and stressful operation in
ballooning, both in terms of equipment and the pilot. Balloons are designed to be free flown, not tied to the ground, and
tethering incurs forces on a balloon that can, under certain circumstances, exceed design limits. The pilot conducting
a tether is often called upon to conduct two or three hours of precise, “finesse” flying, which many times they are not
prepared for. The crew must endure 2 to 3 hours of non-stop handling to manage this complex and often exhausting
operation. Safe conditions fall within narrow ranges and a safe tether often demands more attention and management than
flying in marginal conditions.
Every tether situation is unique enough to require tailoring the operation to specific needs and equipment. However, the
idea of a “simple” tether should not lure the pilot into underestimating the very real demands and risks that come with it.
A skilled and knowledgeable crew allows a pilot to take advantage of the many benefits tethering offers. Under suitable
conditions, a well planned multi-hour commercial tether can last for hours, reach a media audience of millions, and offer
several hundred people their first brief balloon ride. Regardless of the reasons for tethering a balloon, all forms of tethering
require the same basic preparations and guidelines for safety.
The balloon pilot contemplating a tether operation should remember that the requirements of 14 CFR Part 91, General
Operating and Flight Rules, apply to all operations conducted with a type-certified hot air balloon. There is a popular
misconception that tether operations are conducted under the provisions of 14 CFR Part 101, Applicability; this is an
incorrect assumption. Tether operations must be conducted by a certificated pilot, and may not, under any circumstances,
be performed by an individual not in possession of an airman’s certificate.
Laying out the balloon for a properly executed tether operation requires a little more preparation than a normal launch
layout. Initial planning needs to take into consideration the winds, both current and forecast, for the period of time the