Introduction
Flight instructors may use this guide in the development of
lesson plans. The lessons are arranged in a logical learning
sequence and use the building-block technique. Each lesson
includes ground training appropriate to the flight portion of
the lesson. It is vitally important that the flight instructor brief
the student on the objective of the lesson and how it will be
accomplished. Debriefing the student’s performance is also
necessary to motivate further progress. To ensure steady
progress, student pilots should master the objective of each
lesson before advancing to the next lesson. Lessons should
be arranged to take advantage of each student’s knowledge
and skills.
Flight instructors must monitor progress closely during
training to guide student pilots in how to properly divide
their attention. The importance of this division of attention
or “cross-check” cannot be overemphasized. Cross-check and
proper instrument interpretation are essential components
of “attitude instrument flying” that enables student pilots to
accurately visualize the aircraft’s attitude at all times.
When possible, each lesson should incorporate radio
communications, basic navigation, and emergency procedures
so the student pilot is exposed to the entire IFR experience
with each flight. Cross-reference the Instrument Training
Lesson Guide with this handbook and the Instrument
Practical Test Standards for a comprehensive instrument
rating training program.
Lesson 1—Ground and flight evaluation
of student’s knowledge and performance
Aircraft systems
Aircraft performance
Preflight planning
Use of checklists
Basic flight maneuvers
Radio communications procedures
Navigation systems
Appendix B
Instrument Training Lesson Guide
Lesson 2—Preflight preparation and
flight by reference to instruments
Ground Training
Instrument system preflight procedures
Attitude instrument flying
Fundamental instrument skills
Instrument cross-check techniques
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument preflight inspection
Use of checklists
Fundamental instrument skills
Basic flight maneuvers
Instrument approach (demonstrated)
Postflight procedures
Lesson 3—Flight instruments and human
factors
Ground Training
Human factors
Flight instruments and systems
Aircraft systems
Navigation instruments and systems
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument preflight inspection
Radio communications
Checklist procedures
Attitude instrument flying
Fundamental instrument skills
Basic flight maneuvers
Spatial disorientation demonstration
Navigation systems
Postflight procedures
Lesson 4—Attitude instrument flying
Ground Training
Human factors
Flight instruments and systems
Aircraft systems
Navigation instruments and systems
Attitude instrument flying
Fundamental instrument skills
Basic flight maneuvers
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument preflight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Attitude instrument flying
Fundamental instrument skills
Basic flight maneuvers
Spatial disorientation
Navigation
Postflight procedures
Lesson 5—Aerodynamic factors and
basic flight maneuvers
Ground Training
Basic aerodynamic factors
Basic instrument flight patterns
Emergency procedures
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument preflight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Basic instrument flight patterns
Emergency procedures
Navigation
Postflight procedures
Lesson 6—Partial panel operations
Ground Training
ATC system
Flight instruments
Partial panel operations
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument preflight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Basic instrument flight patterns
Emergency procedures
Partial panel practice
Navigation
Postflight procedures
Lesson 7—Recovery from unusual
attitudes
Ground Training
Attitude instrument flying
ATC system
NAS overview
Flight Training
Preflight
Aircraft and instrument preflight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Instrument takeoff
Navigation
Partial panel practice
Recovery from unusual attitudes
Postflight procedures
Lesson 8—Navigation systems
Ground Training
ATC clearances
Departure procedures
IFR en route charts
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument preflight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Intercepting and tracking
Holding
Postflight procedures
Lesson 9—Review and practice
Ground Training
Aerodynamic factors
Flight instruments and systems
Attitude instrument flying
Navigation systems
NAS
ATC
Emergency procedures
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument preflight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Review and practice as determined by the flight instructor
Instrument takeoff
Radio communications
Navigation systems
Emergency procedures
Postflight procedures
Lessons 10 through 19—Orientation,
intercepting, tracking, and holding using
each navigation system installed in the
aircraft
Ground Training
Preflight planning
Navigation systems
NAS
ATC
Emergencies
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument preflight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Departure procedures
En route navigation
Terminal operations
Partial panel operation
Instrument approach
Missed approach
Approach to a landing
Postflight procedures
Lessons 20 and 21—Cross-country
flights
Ground Training
Preflight planning
Aircraft performance
Navigation systems
NAS
ATC
Emergencies
Flight Training
Emergency procedures
Partial panel operation
Aircraft and instrument preflight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Departure procedures
En route navigation
Terminal operations
Instrument approach
Missed approach
Approach to a landing
Postflight procedures
Lessons 22 and 23—Review and practice
Ground Training
Human factors
Aerodynamic factors
Flight instruments and systems
Attitude instrument flying
Basic flight maneuvers
Navigation systems
NAS
ATC
Emergency operations
Flight Training
Aircraft and instrument preflight inspection
Checklist procedures
Radio communications
Review and practice as determined by the flight instructor
Instrument takeoff
Partial panel operations
Unusual attitude recoveries
Radio communications
Navigation systems
Emergency procedures
Postflight procedures
Lessons 24 and subsequent—Practical
test preparation
Ground Training
Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) parts
61, 71, 91, 95, and 97
Instrument Flying Handbook
Practical test standards
Administrative requirements
Equipment requirements
Applicant’s requirements
Flight Training
Review and practice until the student can consistently
perform all required tasks in accordance with the appropriate
practical test standards.
NOTE: It is the recommending instructor’s responsibility to
ensure that the applicant meets 14 CFR part 61 requirements
and is prepared for the practical test, including: training,
knowledge, experience, and the appropriate instructor
endorsements.
Absolute accuracy. The ability to determine present position
in space independently, and is most often used by pilots.
Absolute altitude. The actual distance between an aircraft
and the terrain over which it is flying.
Absolute pressure. Pressure measured from the reference
of zero pressure, or a vacuum.
A.C. Alternating current.
Acceleration error. A magnetic compass error apparent when
the aircraft accelerates while flying on an easterly or westerly
heading, causing the compass card to rotate toward North.
Accelerometer. A part of an inertial navigation system
(INS) that accurately measures the force of acceleration in
one direction.
ADF. See automatic direction finder.
ADI. See attitude director indicator.
ADM. See aeronautical decision-making.
ADS–B. See automatic dependent surveillance–broadcast.
Adverse yaw. A flight condition at the beginning of a turn in
which the nose of the aircraft starts to move in the direction
opposite the direction the turn is being made, caused by the
induced drag produced by the downward-deflected aileron
holding back the wing as it begins to rise.
Aeronautical decision-making (ADM). A systematic
approach to the mental process used by pilots to consistently
determine the best course of action in response to a given
set of circumstances.
A/FD. See Airport/Facility Directory.
Glossary
Agonic line. An irregular imaginary line across the surface of
the Earth along which the magnetic and geographic poles are in
alignment, and along which there is no magnetic variation.
Aircraft approach category. A performance grouping of
aircraft based on a speed of 1.3 times the stall speed in the
landing configuration at maximum gross landing weight.
Air data computer (ADC). An aircraft computer that
receives and processes pitot pressure, static pressure, and
temperature to calculate very precise altitude, indicated
airspeed, true airspeed, and air temperature.
AIRMET. Inflight weather advisory issued as an amendment
to the area forecast, concerning weather phenomena of
operational interest to all aircraft and that is potentially
hazardous to aircraft with limited capability due to lack of
equipment, instrumentation, or pilot qualifications.
Airport diagram. The section of an instrument approach
procedure chart that shows a detailed diagram of the
airport. This diagram includes surface features and airport
configuration information.
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD). An FAA publication
containing information on all airports, communications,
and NAVAIDs.
Airport surface detection equipment (ASDE). Radar
equipment specifically designed to detect all principal
features and traffic on the surface of an airport, presenting the
entire image on the control tower console; used to augment
visual observation by tower personnel of aircraft and/or
vehicular movements on runways and taxiways.
Airport surveillance radar (ASR). Approach control
radar used to detect and display an aircraft’s position in the
terminal area.
Airport surveillance radar approach. An instrument
approach in which ATC issues instructions for pilot
compliance based on aircraft position in relation to the final
approach course and the distance from the end of the runway
as displayed on the controller’s radar scope.
Air route surveillance radar (ARSR). Air route traffic
control center (ARTCC) radar used primarily to detect
and display an aircraft’s position while en route between
terminal areas.
Air route traffic control center (ARTCC). Provides ATC
service to aircraft operating on IFR flight plans within
controlled airspace and principally during the en route phase
of flight.
Airspeed indicator. A differential pressure gauge that
measures the dynamic pressure of the air through which the
aircraft is flying. Displays the craft’s airspeed, typically in
knots, to the pilot.
Air traffic control radar beacon system (ATCRBS).
Sometimes called secondary surveillance radar (SSR), which
utilizes a transponder in the aircraft. The ground equipment is
an interrogating unit, in which the beacon antenna is mounted
so it rotates with the surveillance antenna. The interrogating
unit transmits a coded pulse sequence that actuates the aircraft
transponder. The transponder answers the coded sequence by
transmitting a preselected coded sequence back to the ground
equipment, providing a strong return signal and positive
aircraft identification, as well as other special data.
Airway. An airway is based on a centerline that extends from
one navigation aid or intersection to another navigation aid
(or through several navigation aids or intersections); used
to establish a known route for en route procedures between
terminal areas.
Alert area. An area in which there is a high volume of pilot
training or an unusual type of aeronautical activity.
Almanac data. Information the global positioning system
(GPS) receiver can obtain from one satellite which describes
the approximate orbital positioning of all satellites in the
constellation. This information is necessary for the GPS
receiver to know what satellites to look for in the sky at a
given time.
ALS. See approach lighting system.
Alternate airport. An airport designated in an IFR flight
plan, providing a suitable destination if a landing at the
intended airport becomes inadvisable.
Alternate static source valve. A valve in the instrument static
air system that supplies reference air pressure to the altimeter,
airspeed indicator, and vertical speed indicator if the normal
static pickup should become clogged or iced over.
Altimeter setting. Station pressure (the barometric pressure
at the location the reading is taken) which has been corrected
for the height of the station above sea level.
AME. See aviation medical examiner.
Amendment status. The circulation date and revision
number of an instrument approach procedure, printed above
the procedure identification.
Ammeter. An instrument installed in series with an electrical
load used to measure the amount of current flowing through
the load.
Aneroid. The sensitive component in an altimeter or
barometer that measures the absolute pressure of the air.
It is a sealed, flat capsule made of thin disks of corrugated
metal soldered together and evacuated by pumping all of
the air out of it.
Aneroid barometer. An instrument that measures the
absolute pressure of the atmosphere by balancing the weight
of the air above it against the spring action of the aneroid.
Angle of attack. The acute angle formed between the
chord line of an airfoil and the direction of the air striking
the airfoil.
Anti-ice. Preventing the accumulation of ice on an aircraft
structure via a system designed for that purpose.
Approach lighting system (ALS). Provides lights that will
penetrate the atmosphere far enough from touchdown to give
directional, distance, and glide path information for safe
transition from instrument to visual flight.
Area chart. Part of the low-altitude en route chart series,
this chart furnishes terminal data at a larger scale for
congested areas.
Area navigation (RNAV). Allows a pilot to fly a selected
course to a predetermined point without the need to overfly
ground-based navigation facilities, by using waypoints.
ARSR. See air route surveillance radar.
ARTCC. See air route traffic control center.
ASDE. See airport surface detection equipment.
ASOS. See automated surface observing station.
ASR. See airport surveillance radar.
ATC. Air Traffic Control.
ATCRBS. See air traffic control radar beacon system.
ATIS. See automatic terminal information service.
Atmospheric propagation delay. A bending of the
electromagnetic (EM) wave from the satellite that creates
an error in the GPS system.
Attitude and heading reference systems (AHRS). System
composed of three-axis sensors that provide heading, attitude,
and yaw information for aircraft. AHRS are designed to
replace traditional mechanical gyroscopic flight instruments
and provide superior reliability and accuracy.
Attitude director indicator (ADI). An aircraft attitude
indicator that incorporates flight command bars to provide
pitch and roll commands.
Attitude indicator. The foundation for all instrument flight,
this instrument reflects the airplane’s attitude in relation to
the horizon.
Attitude instrument flying. Controlling the aircraft by
reference to the instruments rather than by outside visual
cues.
Autokinesis. Nighttime visual illusion that a stationary light
is moving, which becomes apparent after several seconds of
staring at the light.
Automated Weather Observing System (AWOS).
Automated weather reporting system consisting of various
sensors, a processor, a computer-generated voice subsystem,
and a transmitter to broadcast weather data.
Automated Surface Observing Station (ASOS). Weather
reporting system which provides surface observations every
minute via digitized voice broadcasts and printed reports.
Automatic dependent surveillance–broadcast (ADS-B). A
device used in aircraft that repeatedly broadcasts a message
that includes position (such as latitude, longitude, and
altitude), velocity, and possibly other information.
Automatic direction finder (ADF). Electronic navigation
equipment that operates in the low- and medium-frequency
bands. Used in conjunction with the ground-based
nondirectional beacon (NDB), the instrument displays the
number of degrees clockwise from the nose of the aircraft
to the station being received.
Automatic terminal information service (ATIS). The
continuous broadcast of recorded non-control information in
selected terminal areas. Its purpose is to improve controller
effectiveness and relieve frequency congestion by automating
repetitive transmission of essential but routine information.
Aviation medical examiner (AME). A physician with
training in aviation medicine designated by the Civil
Aerospace Medical Institute (CAMI).
AWOS. See automated weather observing system.
Azimuth card. A card that may be set, gyroscopically
controlled, or driven by a remote compass.
Back course (BC). The reciprocal of the localizer course
for an ILS. When flying a back-course approach, an aircraft
approaches the instrument runway from the end at which the
localizer antennas are installed.
Baro-aiding. A method of augmenting the GPS integrity
solution by using a non-satellite input source. To ensure that
baro-aiding is available, the current altimeter setting must
be entered as described in the operating manual.
Barometric scale. A scale on the dial of an altimeter to which
the pilot sets the barometric pressure level from which the
altitude shown by the pointers is measured.
BC. See back course.
Block altitude. A block of altitudes assigned by ATC to
allow altitude deviations; for example, “Maintain block
altitude 9 to 11 thousand.”
Cage. The black markings on the ball instrument indicating
its neutral position.
Calibrated. The instrument indication compared with a
standard value to determine the accuracy of the instrument.
Calibrated orifice. A hole of specific diameter used to delay
the pressure change in the case of a vertical speed indicator.
Calibrated airspeed. The speed at which the aircraft
is moving through the air, found by correcting IAS for
instrument and position errors.
CAS. Calibrated airspeed.
CDI. Course deviation indicator.
Changeover point (COP). A point along the route or
airway segment between two adjacent navigation facilities
or waypoints where changeover in navigation guidance
should occur.
Circling approach. A maneuver initiated by the pilot to
align the aircraft with a runway for landing when a straight-
in landing from an instrument approach is not possible or is
not desirable.
Class A airspace. Airspace from 18,000 feet MSL up to and
including FL 600, including the airspace overlying the waters
within 12 NM of the coast of the 48 contiguous states and
Alaska; and designated international airspace beyond 12 NM
of the coast of the 48 contiguous states and Alaska within areas
of domestic radio navigational signal or ATC radar coverage,
and within which domestic procedures are applied.
Class B airspace. Airspace from the surface to 10,000 feet
MSL surrounding the nation’s busiest airports in terms of
IFR operations or passenger numbers. The configuration of
each Class B airspace is individually tailored and consists
of a surface area and two or more layers, and is designed to
contain all published instrument procedures once an aircraft
enters the airspace. For all aircraft, an ATC clearance is
required to operate in the area, and aircraft so cleared receive
separation services within the airspace.
Class C airspace. Airspace from the surface to 4,000 feet
above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding
those airports having an operational control tower, serviced
by radar approach control, and having a certain number of IFR
operations or passenger numbers. Although the configuration
of each Class C airspace area is individually tailored, the
airspace usually consists of a 5 NM radius core surface area
that extends from the surface up to 4,000 feet above the airport
elevation, and a 10 NM radius shelf area that extends from
1,200 feet to 4,000 feet above the airport elevation.
Class D airspace. Airspace from the surface to 2,500 feet
above the airport elevation (charted in MSL) surrounding
those airports that have an operational control tower. The
configuration of each Class D airspace area is individually
tailored, and when instrument procedures are published, the
airspace is normally designed to contain the procedures.
Class E airspace. Airspace that is not Class A, Class B, Class
C, or Class D, and is controlled airspace.
Class G airspace. Airspace that is uncontrolled, except
when associated with a temporary control tower, and has
not been designated as Class A, Class B, Class C, Class D,
or Class E airspace.
Clean configuration. A configuration in which all flight
control surfaces have been placed to create minimum drag.
In most aircraft this means flaps and gear retracted.
Clearance. ATC permission for an aircraft to proceed under
specified traffic conditions within controlled airspace, for the
purpose of providing separation between known aircraft.
Clearance delivery. Control tower position responsible for
transmitting departure clearances to IFR flights.
Clearance limit. The fix, point, or location to which an
aircraft is cleared when issued an air traffic clearance.
Clearance on request. An IFR clearance not yet received
after filing a flight plan.
Clearance void time. Used by ATC, the time at which the
departure clearance is automatically canceled if takeoff has
not been made. The pilot must obtain a new clearance or
cancel the IFR flight plan if not off by the specified time.
Clear ice. Glossy, clear, or translucent ice formed by the
relatively slow freezing of large, supercooled water droplets.
Compass course. A true course corrected for variation and
deviation errors.
Compass locator. A low-power, low- or medium-frequency
(L/MF) radio beacon installed at the site of the outer or middle
marker of an ILS.
Compass rose. A small circle graduated in 360° increments,
printed on navigational charts to show the amount of
compass variation at different locations, or on instruments
to indicate direction.
Computer navigation fix. A point used to define a
navigation track for an airborne computer system such as
GPS or FMS.
Concentric rings. Dashed-line circles depicted in the plan
view of IAP charts, outside of the reference circle, that show
en route and feeder facilities.