En Route Reporting Procedures
In addition to acknowledging a handoff to another Center
en route controller, there are reports that should be made
without a specific request from ATC. Certain reports should
be made at all times regardless of whether a flight is in radar
contact with ATC, while others are necessary only if radar
contact has been lost or terminated. [Figure 2-68]
Non-Radar Position Reports
If radar contact has been lost or radar service terminated,
the CFRs require pilots to provide ATC with position reports
over designated VORs and intersections along their route
of flight. These compulsory reporting points are depicted
on IFR en route charts by solid triangles. Position reports
over fixes indicated by open triangles are noncompulsory
reporting points and are only necessary when requested by
ATC. If on a direct course that is not on an established airway,
report over the fixes used in the flight plan that define
the route, since they automatically become compulsory
reporting points. Compulsory reporting points also apply
when conducting an IFR flight in accordance with a VFR-
on-top clearance.
Whether a route is on an airway or direct, position reports
are mandatory in a non-radar environment, and they
must include specific information. A typical position
report includes information pertaining to aircraft position,
expected route, and ETA. When a position report is to be
made passing a VOR radio facility, the time reported should
be the time at which the first complete reversal of the TO/
FROM indicator is accomplished. When a position report is
made passing a facility by means of an airborne ADF, the
time reported should be the time at which the indicator
makes a complete reversal. When an aural or a light panel
indication is used to determine the time passing a reporting
point, such as a fan marker, Z marker, cone of silence or
intersection of range courses, the time should be noted
when the signal is first received and again when it ceases.
The mean of these two times should then be taken as the
actual time over the fix. If a position is given with respect to
distance and direction from a reporting point, the distance
and direction should be computed as accurately as possible.
Except for terminal area transition purposes, position
reports or navigation with reference to aids not established
for use in the structure in which flight is being conducted
are not normally required by ATC.
Flights in a Radar Environment
When informed by ATC that their aircraft are in “Radar
Contact, ” pilots should discontinue position reports over
designated reporting points. They should resume normal
position reporting when ATC advises “radar contact lost”
or “radar service terminated. ” ATC informs pilots that they
are in radar contact:
1. When their aircraft is initially identified in the
ATC system; and
2. When radar identification is reestablished after
radar service has been terminated or radar
contact lost.
Subsequent to being advised that the controller has
established radar contact, this fact is not repeated to
the pilot when handed off to another controller. At
times, the aircraft identity is confirmed by the receiving
controller; however, this should not be construed to
mean that radar contact has been lost. The identity of
transponder equipped aircraft is confirmed by asking
the pilot to “ident, ” “squawk standby, ” or to change
codes. Aircraft without transponders are advised of
their position to confirm identity. In this case, the pilot
is expected to advise the controller if in disagreement
with the position given. Any pilot who cannot confirm
the accuracy of the position given because of not being
tuned to the NAVAID referenced by the controller
should ask for another radar position relative to the
tuned in NAVAID.
Position Report Items
Position reports should include the following items:
1. Aircraft identification
2. Position
3. Time
4. Altitude or flight level (include actual altitude
or flight level when operating on a clearance
specifying VFR-on-top)
5. Type of flight plan (not required in IFR position
reports made directly to ARTCCs or approach
control)
6. ETA and name of next reporting point
7. The name only of the next succeeding reporting
point along the route of flight
8. Pertinent remarks
Additional Reports
The following reports should be made at all times to
ATC or Flight Service facilities without a specific ATC
request:
1. When vacating any previously assigned altitude
or flight level for a newly assigned altitude or
flight level.
2. When an altitude change is made if operating
on a clearance specifying VFR-on-top.
3. When unable to climb/descend at a rate of a least
500 feet per minute (fpm).
4. When approach has been missed. (Request clearance
for specific action (i.e., to alternative airport, another
approach).
5. Change in the average true airspeed (at cruising
altitude) when it varies by 5 percent or 10 knots
(whichever is greater) from that filed in the flight
plan.
6. The time and altitude or flight level upon reaching
a holding fix or point to which cleared.
7. When leaving any assigned holding fix or point.
Note: The reports stated in subparagraphs 6 and
7 may be omitted by pilots of aircraft involved in
instrument training at military terminal area facilities
when radar service is being provided.
8. Any loss, in controlled airspace, of VOR, TACAN,
ADF, low frequency navigation receiver capability,
GPS anomalies while using installed IFR-certified
GPS/GNSS receivers, complete or partial loss of ILS
receiver capability or impairment of air/ground
communications capability. Reports should include
aircraft identification, equipment affected, degree
to which the capability to operate under IFR in the
ATC system is impaired, and the nature and extent
of assistance desired from ATC.
9. Any information relating to the safety of flight.
Other equipment installed in an aircraft may impair your
ability to safely operate under IFR. If a malfunction of
such equipment (e.g., weather radar) affects any safety or
IFR capability, reports should be made as stated above.
When reporting GPS anomalies, be very specific and
include the location, altitude, and duration of the anomaly.
Deliberate GPS interference or outage areas resulting from
pre-approved government tests will be disseminated in
NOTAMs. These outages should not be reported to ATC,
as this condition is known and not an anomaly. See also
AIM 1-1-13.
Communication Failure
Two-way radio communication failure procedures for IFR
operations are outlined in 14 CFR Part 91, § 91.185. Unless
otherwise authorized by ATC, pilots operating under IFR
are expected to comply with this regulation. Expanded
procedures for communication failures are found in the
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM). Pilots can use the
transponder to alert ATC to a radio communication failure by
squawking code 7600. [Figure 2-69] If only the transmitter
is inoperative, listen for ATC instructions on any operational
receiver, including the navigation receivers. It is possible ATC
may try to make contact with pilots over a VOR, VORTAC,
NDB, or localizer frequency. In addition to monitoring
NAVAID receivers, attempt to reestablish communications
by contacting ATC on a previously assigned frequency or
calling an FSS.
The primary objective of the regulations governing
communication failures is to preclude extended IFR
no-radio operations within the ATC system since these
operations may adversely affect other users of the airspace.
If the radio fails while operating on an IFR clearance, but
in VFR conditions, or if encountering VFR conditions at
any time after the failure, continue the flight under VFR
conditions, if possible, and land as soon as practicable. The
requirement to land as soon as practicable should not be
construed to mean as soon as possible. Pilots retain the
prerogative of exercising their best judgment and are not
required to land at an unauthorized airport, at an airport
unsuitable for the type of aircraft flown, or to land only
When an aircraft squawks code 7600 during a two-way radio
communication failure, the information block on the radar
screen flashes RDOF (radio failure) to alert the controller.
Figure 2-69. Two-way radio communications failure transponder code.
minutes short of their intended destination. However, if
IFR conditions prevail, pilots must comply with procedures
designated in the CFRs to ensure aircraft separation.
If pilots must continue their flight under IFR after
experiencing two-way radio communication failure, they
should fly one of the following routes:
• The route assigned by ATC in the last clearance
received.
• If being radar vectored, the direct route from the
point of radio failure to the fix, route, or airway
specified in the radar vector clearance.
• In the absence of an assigned route, the route ATC
has advised to expect in a further clearance.
• In the absence of an assigned or expected route, the
route filed in the flight plan.
It is also important to fly a specific altitude should two-way
radio communications be lost. The altitude to fly after a
communication failure can be found in 14 CFR Part 91, §
91.185 and must be the highest of the following altitudes
for each route segment flown.
• The altitude or flight level assigned in the last ATC
clearance.
• The minimum altitude or flight level for IFR
operations.
• The altitude or flight level ATC has advised to expect
in a further clearance.
In some cases, the assigned or expected altitude may not be as
high as the MEA on the next route segment. In this situation,
pilots normally begin a climb to the higher MEA when they
reach the fix where the MEA rises. If the fix also has a published
MCA, they start the climb so they are at or above the MCA
when reaching the fix. If the next succeeding route segment
has a lower MEA, descend to the applicable altitude either
the last assigned altitude or the altitude expected in a further
clearance—when reaching the fix where the MEA decreases.
ARTCC Radio Frequency Outage
ARTCCs normally have at least one back-up radio receiver
and transmitter system for each frequency that can usually
be placed into service quickly with little or no disruption of
ATC service. Occasionally, technical problems may cause a
delay but switchover seldom takes more than 60 seconds.
When it appears that the outage is not quickly remedied,
the ARTCC usually requests a nearby aircraft, if there is
one, to switch to the affected frequency to broadcast
communications instructions. It is important that the pilot
wait at least one minute before deciding that the ARTCC has
actually experienced a radio frequency failure. When such
an outage does occur, the pilot should, if workload and
equipment capability permit, maintain a listening watch
on the affected frequency while attempting to comply with
the following recommended communications procedures:
1. If two-way communications cannot be established
with the ARTCC after changing frequencies, a pilot
should attempt to re-contact the transferring
controller for the assignment of an alternative
frequency or other instructions.
2. When an ARTCC radio frequency failure occurs after
two-way communications have been established,
the pilot should attempt to reestablish contact with
the center on any other known ARTCC frequency,
preferably that of the next responsible sector when
practicable, and ask for instructions. However,
when the next normal frequency change along
the route is known to involve another ATC facility,
the pilot should contact that facility, if feasible,
for instructions. If communications cannot be
reestablished by either method, the pilot is expected
to request communication instructions from the FSS
appropriate to the route of flight.
Note: The exchange of information between an aircraft
and an ARTCC through an FSS is quicker than relay via
company radio because the FSS has direct interphone
lines to the responsible ARTCC sector. Accordingly,
when circumstances dictate a choice between the two
during an ARTCC frequency outage relay via FSS radio is
recommended.
Climbing and Descending En Route
When ATC issues a clearance or instruction, pilots are
expected to execute its provisions upon receipt. In some
cases, ATC includes words that modify their expectation.
For example, the word “immediately” in a clearance or
instruction is used to impress urgency to avoid an imminent
situation, and expeditious compliance is expected and
necessary for safety. The addition of a climb point or time
restriction, for example, does not authorize pilots to deviate
from the route of flight or any other provision of the ATC
clearance. If the pilot receives the term “climb at pilot’s
discretion” in the altitude information of an ATC clearance,
it means that the pilot has the option to start a climb when
they desire and are authorized to climb at any rate, and to
temporarily level off at any intermediate altitude as desired,
although once you vacate an altitude, you may not return to
that altitude. When ATC has not used the term nor imposed
any climb restrictions, pilots should climb promptly on
acknowledgment of the clearance. Climb at an optimum
rate consistent with the operating characteristics of the
aircraft to 1,000 feet below the assigned altitude, and then
attempt to climb at a rate of between 500 and 1,500 fpm
until the assigned altitude is reached. If at any time the
pilot is unable to climb at a rate of at least 500 fpm, advise
ATC. If it is necessary to level off at an intermediate altitude
during climb, advise ATC.
When ATC issues the instruction, “Expedite climb, ” this
normally indicates that the pilot should use the approximate
best rate of climb without an exceptional change in aircraft
handling characteristics. Normally controllers inform pilots
of the reason for an instruction to expedite. If flying a
turbojet aircraft equipped with afterburner engines, such as
a military aircraft, pilots should advise ATC prior to takeoff
if intending to use afterburning during the climb to the en
route altitude. Often, the controller may be able to plan
traffic to accommodate a high performance climb and allow
the pilot to climb to the planned altitude without “expedite”
clearance from restriction. If you receive an ATC instruction,
and your altitude to maintain is subsequently changed
or restated without an expedite instruction, the expedite
instruction is canceled.
During en route climb, as in any other phase of flight,
it is essential that you clearly communicate with ATC
regarding clearances. In the following example, a flight crew
experienced an apparent clearance readback/hearback
error, that resulted in confusion about the clearance and,
ultimately, to inadequate separation from another aircraft.
“Departing IFR, clearance was to maintain 5,000 feet,
expect 12,000 in 10 minutes. ” After handoff to Center, the
pilot understood and read back, “Leaving 5,000 turn left
heading 240° for vector on course. ” The pilot turned to the
assigned heading climbing through 5,000 feet. At 5,300 feet,
Center advised assigned altitude was 5,000 feet. The pilot
immediately descended to 5,000. Center then informed
the pilot that there was traffic at 12 o’clock and a mile at
6,000. After passing traffic, a higher altitude was assigned
and climb resumed. The pilot then believed the clearance
was probably "reaching" 5,000, etc. Even the readback to the
controller with "leaving" did not catch the different wording.
“Reaching” and “leaving” are commonly used ATC terms
having different usages. They may be used in clearances
involving climbs, descents, turns, or speed changes. In the
flight deck, the words “reaching” and “leaving” sound much
alike.
For altitude awareness during climb, pilots often call out
altitudes on the flight deck. The pilot monitoring may call
2,000 and 1,000 feet prior to reaching an assigned altitude.
The callout may be, “two” climbing through the transit
to go altitude (QNH), both pilots set their altimeters to
29.92 inches of mercury and announce “2992 inches” (or
‘standard, ’ on some aircraft) and the flight level passing.
For example, “2992 inches” (standard), flight level one
eight zero. The second officer on three pilot crews may
ensure that both pilots have inserted the proper altimeter
setting. On international flights, pilots must be prepared
to differentiate, if necessary, between barometric pressure
equivalents with inches of mercury, and millibars or
hectopascals, to eliminate any potential for error. For
example, 996 millibars erroneously being set as 2996.
For a typical IFR flight, the majority of in-flight time often
is flown in level flight at cruising altitude from top of climb
(TOC) to top of descent (TOD). Generally, TOD is used in
airplanes with a FMS and represents the point at which
descent is first initiated from cruise altitude. FMS also
assist in level flight by cruising at the most fuel saving
speed, providing continuing guidance along the flight plan
route including great circle direct routes, and continuous
evaluation and prediction of fuel consumption along with
changing clearance data.
Secondary area
Primary area holding pattern airspace area
Fix displacement area
Facility
Facility
Figure 2-70. Holding pattern design criteria template.
NOT FOR NAVIGATION
"...Hold southeast
of PINNE Intersection as published.
Expect further clearance at 1645."
There are at least three items in a clearance for a charted holding pattern:
• Direction to hold from the holding fix
• Holding fix
• Expect further clearance time
A clearance for an uncharted holding pattern contains additional information:
• Direction to hold from holding fix
• Holding fix
• The holding course (a specified radial,
magnetic bearing, airway or route number)
• The outbound leg length in minutes or
nautical miles when DME is used
• Nonstandard pattern, if used
• Expect further clearance time
"...Hold west
of Horst Intersection
on Victor 8
5 mile legs
left turns
expect further clearance at 1430."
Figure 2-71. ATC holding instructions.
Aircraft Speed and Altitude
During the en route descent phase of flight, an additional
benefit a FMS is that it provides fuel saving idle thrust
descent to your destination airport. This allows an
uninterrupted profile descent from level cruising altitude
to an appropriate MIA, except where level flight is required
for speed adjustment. Controllers anticipate and plan that
Figure 2-72. Clearance limit holding.
CHERRELYN
( H )117.2 CHL 331°
269°
221°
126°V214
the pilot may level off at 10,000 feet MSL on descent to
comply with the 14 CFR Part 91 indicated airspeed limit of
250 knots. Leveling off at any other time on descent may
seriously affect air traffic handling by ATC. It is imperative
that pilots make every effort to fulfill ATC expected actions
on descent to aid in safely handling and expediting air
traffic.
ATC issues speed adjustments if the flight is being radar
controlled to achieve or maintain required or desired
spacing. They express speed adjustments in terms of knots
based on indicated airspeed in 10 knot increments except
that at or above FL 240 speeds may be expressed in terms
of Mach numbers in 0.01 increments. The use of Mach
numbers by ATC is restricted to turbojets. If complying
with speed adjustments, pilots are expected to maintain
that speed within plus or minus 10 knots or 0.02 Mach.
Speed and altitude restrictions in clearances are subject
to misinterpretation, as evidenced in this case where a
corporate flight crew treated instructions in a published
procedure as a clearance. The aircraft was at FL 310 and
had already programmed the ‘expect-crossing altitude’ of
Maximum Holding Airspeed: KIAS5
Maximum Holding Airspeed: KIAS0
Maximum Holding Airspeed: KIAS0
14,001'
MSL
14,000'
MSL
6,000'
MSL
Minimum
Holding
Altitude
(MHA)
6,001'
MSL
Figure 2-73. Maximum holding speeds for different altitudes.
17,000 feet at the VOR. When the altitude alerter sounded,
the pilot advised Center that we were leaving FL 310. ATC
acknowledged with a “Roger. ” At FL 270, Center questioned
the pilot about the aircrafts descent. The pilot told the
controller that the reason for the descent was to cross the
VOR at 17,000 feet. ATC advised the pilot that he did not
have clearance to descend. What the pilot thought was a
clearance was in fact an “expect”clearance. Whenever pilots
are in doubt about a clearance it is imperative they request
clarity from ATC. Also, the term “Roger” only means that ATC
received the transmission, not that they understood the
transmission. “Expect” altitudes are published for planning
purposes and are not considered crossing restrictions until
verbally issued by ATC.
En Route Holding Procedures
The criteria for holding pattern airspace is developed
both to provide separation of aircraft, as well as obstacle
clearance. The alignment of holding patterns typically
coincides with the flight course you fly after leaving the
holding fix. For level holding, a minimum of 1,000 feet
obstacle clearance is provided throughout the primary
area. In the secondary area, 500 feet of obstacle clearance
is provided at the inner edge, tapering to zero feet at the
outer edge. Allowance for precipitous terrain is considered,
and the altitudes selected for obstacle clearance may be
rounded to the nearest 100 feet. When criteria for a climb
in hold are applied, no obstacle penetrates the holding
surface. [Figure 2-70]
There are many factors that affect aircraft during holding
maneuvers, including navigational aid ground and airborne
tolerance, effect of wind, flight procedures, application of
ATC, outbound leg length, maximum holding airspeeds,
fix to NAVAID distance, DME slant range effect, holding
airspace size, and altitude holding levels.
ATC Holding Instructions
When controllers anticipate a delay at a clearance limit or
fix, pilots are usually issued a holding clearance at least
five minutes before the ETA at the clearance limit or fix. If
the holding pattern assigned by ATC is depicted on the
appropriate aeronautical chart, pilots are expected to
hold as charted. In the following example, the controller
issues a holding clearance that includes the name of the
fix, directs the pilot to hold as charted, and includes an
expect further clearance (EFC) time. “Marathon five sixty
four, hold east of MIKEY Intersection as published, expect
further clearance at 1521. ”
When ATC issues a clearance requiring you to hold at a fix
where a holding pattern is not charted, pilots are issued
complete holding instructions. The holding instructions
include the direction from the fix, name of the fix, course,
leg length, if appropriate, direction of turns (if left turns
are required), and the EFC time. Pilots are required to
maintain the last assigned altitude unless a new altitude is
specifically included in the holding clearance and should
fly right turns unless left turns are assigned. Note that all
holding instructions should include an EFC time. In the
event that two-way radio communication is lost, the EFC
allows the pilot to depart the holding fix at a definite time.
Pilots should plan the last lap of the holding pattern to
leave the fix as close as possible to the exact time. [Figure
2-71]
When approaching the clearance limit and you have
not received holding instructions from ATC, pilots are
expected to follow certain procedures. First, call ATC
and request further clearance before reaching the fix. If
further clearance cannot be obtained, pilots are expected
to hold at the fix in compliance with the charted holding
pattern. If a holding pattern is not charted at the fix, pilots
are expected to hold on the inbound course using right
turns. This procedure ensures that ATC provides adequate
separation. [Figure 2-72] For example, the aircraft is heading
eastbound on V214 and the Cherrelyn VORTAC is the
clearance limit and the pilot has not been able to obtain
further clearance and has not received holding instructions,
plan to hold southwest on the 221° radial using left-hand
turns, as depicted. If this holding pattern is not charted,
hold west of the VOR on V214 using right-hand turns.
Where required for aircraft separation, ATC may request
that the pilot hold at any designated reporting point in a
standard holding pattern at the MEA or the MRA, whichever
altitude is the higher at locations where a minimum holding
altitude has not been established. Unplanned holding at
en route fixes may be expected on airway or route radials,
bearings, or courses. If the fix is a facility, unplanned
holding could be on any radial or bearing and there may
be holding limitations required if standard holding cannot
be accomplished at the MEA or MRA.
Maximum Holding Speed
The size of the holding pattern is directly proportional
to the speed of the aircraft. In order to limit the amount
of airspace that must be protected by ATC, maximum
holding speeds in knots indicated airspeed (KIAS) have
been designated for specific altitude ranges. [Figure 2-73]
Even so, some holding patterns may have additional speed
restrictions to keep faster aircraft from flying out of the
protected area. If a holding pattern has a nonstandard
speed restriction, it is depicted by an icon with the limiting
airspeed. If the holding speed limit is less than the pilot feels
necessary, advise ATC of the revised holding speed. Also, if
the indicated airspeed exceeds the applicable maximum
holding speed, ATC expects the pilot to slow to the speed
limit within three minutes of the ETA at the holding fix.
Often pilots can avoid flying a holding pattern, or reduce
the length of time spent in the holding pattern, by slowing
down on the way to the holding fix.
High Performance Holding
When operating at higher airspeeds, there are certain
limitations that must be adhered to. For example, aircraft
do not make standard rate turns in holding patterns if the
bank angle exceeds 30°. If your aircraft is using a flight
director system, the bank angle is limited to 25°. The aircraft
must be traveling over 210 knots true airspeed (TAS) for the
bank angle in a standard rate turn to exceed 30°; therefore,
this limit applies to relatively fast aircraft. An aircraft using
a flight director would have to be holding at more than
170 knots TAS to come up against the 25° limit. These true
airspeeds correspond to indicated airspeeds of about 183
and 156 knots, respectively, at 6,000 feet in a standard
atmosphere.
En Route Safety Considerations
Fuel State Awareness
In order to increase fuel state awareness, pilots are required
to monitor the time and fuel remaining during an IFR flight.
For example, on a flight scheduled for one hour or less, the
flight crew may record the time and fuel remaining at the
top of climb (TOC) and at one additional waypoint listed
in the flight plan. Generally, TOC is used in aircraft with an
FMS, and represents the point at which cruise altitude is first
reached. TOC is calculated based on current altitude, climb
speed, and cruise altitude. The pilot may elect to delete the
additional waypoint recording requirement if the flight is
so short that the record will not assist in the management
of the flight. For flights scheduled for more than one hour,
the pilot may record the time and fuel remaining shortly
after TOC and at selected waypoints listed in the flight plan,
conveniently spaced approximately one hour apart. The
actual fuel burn is then compared to the planned fuel burn.
Each fuel tank must be monitored to verify proper burn
off and appropriate fuel remaining. For two-pilot aircraft,
the pilot monitoring (PM) keeps the flight plan record. On
three-pilot aircraft, the second officer and PM coordinate
recording and keeping the flight plan record. In all cases,
the crew member(s) making the recording communicates
the information to the pilot flying.
Diversion Procedures
OpSpecs for commercial operators include provisions for en
route emergency diversion airport requirements. Operators
are expected to develop a sufficient set of emergency
diversion airports, so that one or more can be reasonably
expected to be available in varying weather conditions.
The flight must be able to make a safe landing, and the
airplane maneuvered off of the runway at the selected
diversion airport. In the event of a disabled airplane
following landing, the capability to move the disabled
airplane must exist so as not to block the operation of any
recovery aircraft. In addition, those airports designated
for use must be capable of protecting the safety of all
personnel by being able to:
• Offload the passengers and flight crew in a safe
manner during possible adverse weather conditions.
• Provide for the physiological needs of the passengers
and flight crew for the duration until safe evacuation.
• Be able to safely extract passengers and flight crew
as soon as possible. Execution and completion of the
recovery is expected within 12 to 48 hours following
diversion.
Part 91 operators also need to be prepared for a diversion.
Designation of an alternate on the IFR flight plan is a good
first step; but changing weather conditions or equipment
issues may require pilots to consider other options.