Continue via the Yakima 284° radial to AUBRN Intersection.
Expect radar vectors to the final approach course. ”
Now consider how this same clearance is issued when a
STAR exists for this terminal area. “Cessna 32G, cleared to
Seattle/Tacoma International Airport as filed, then CHINS
EIGHT ARRIVAL, Ephrata Transition. Maintain 10,000 feet. ” A
shorter transmission conveys the same information.
Safety is enhanced when both pilots and controllers know
what to expect. Effective communication increases with the
reduction of repetitive clearances, decreasing congestion
on control frequencies. To accomplish this, STARs are
developed according to the following criteria:
• STARs must be simple, easily understood and, if
possible, limited to one page.
• A STAR transition should be able to accommodate as
many different types of aircraft as possible.
• VHF Omnidirectional Range/Tactical Aircraft Control
(VORTACs) are used wherever possible, with some
exceptions on RNAV STARs, so that military and
civilian aircraft can use the same arrival.
• DME arcs within a STAR should be avoided since
not all aircraft operating under IFR are equipped to
navigate them.
• Altitude crossing and airspeed restrictions are
Figure 3-13. STAR symbology.
included when they are assigned by ATC a majority
of the time. [Figure 3-12]
STARs usually are named according to the point at which
the procedure begins. In the United States, typically there
are en route transitions before the STAR itself. So the STAR
name is usually the same as the last fix on the en route
transitions where they come together to begin the basic
STAR procedure. A STAR that commences at the CHINS
Intersection becomes the CHINS SEVEN ARRIVAL. When a
significant portion of the arrival is revised, such as an altitude,
a route, or data concerning the NAVAID, the number of the
arrival changes. For example, the CHINS SEVEN ARRIVAL is
now the CHINS EIGHT ARRIVAL due to modifications in the
procedure.
Studying the STARs for an airport may allow pilots to perceive
the specific topography of the area. Note the initial fixes
and where they correspond to fixes on the Aeronautical
Information Services en route or area chart. Arrivals may
incorporate step-down fixes when necessary to keep aircraft
within airspace boundaries or for obstacle clearance. Routes
between fixes contain courses, distances, and minimum
altitudes, alerting aircrews to possible obstructions or terrain
under their arrival path. Airspeed restrictions also appear
where they aid in managing the traffic flow. In addition,
some STARs require that pilots use DME and/or ATC radar.
Aircrews can decode the symbology on the PAWLING TWO
ARRIVAL by referring to the legend at the beginning of the
TPP . [Figure 3-13]
STAR Procedures
Pilots may accept a STAR within a clearance or they may
file for one in their flight plan. As the aircraft nears its
destination airport, ATC may add a STAR procedure to
its original clearance. Keep in mind that ATC can assign
a STAR even if the aircrew has not requested one. Use of
a STAR requires pilot possession of at least the approved
chart. RNAV STARs must be retrievable by the procedure
name from the aircraft database and conform to charted
procedure. If an aircrew does not want to use a STAR, they
must specify “No STAR” in the remarks section of their flight
plan. Pilots may also refuse the STAR when it is given to
them verbally by ATC, but the system works better if the
aircrew advises ATC ahead of time.
Preparing for the Arrival
As mentioned before, STARs include navigation fixes that
are used to provide transition and arrival routes from
the en route structure to the final approach course. They
also may lead to a fix where radar vectors are provided
to intercept the final approach course. Pilots may have
noticed that minimum crossing altitudes and airspeed
restrictions appear on some STARs. These expected
altitudes and airspeeds are not part of the clearance until
ATC includes them verbally. A STAR is simply a published
routing; it does not have the force of a clearance until
issued specifically by ATC. For example, minimum en route
altitude (MEAs) printed on STARs are not valid unless stated
within an ATC clearance or in cases of lost communication.
After receiving the arrival clearance, the aircrew should
review the assigned STAR procedure and ensure the FMS
has the appropriate procedure loaded (if so equipped).
Obtain the airport and weather information as early
as practical. It is recommended that pilots have this
information prior to flying the STAR. If you are landing at
an airport with approach control services that has two or
more published instrument approach procedures, you will
receive advance notice of which instrument approaches
to expect. This information is broadcast either by ATIS or
by a controller. [Figure 3-14] It may not be provided when
the visibility is 3 SM or better and the ceiling is at or above
the highest initial approach altitude established for any
instrument approach procedure for the airport.
For STAR procedures charted with radar vectors to the
final approach, look for routes from the STAR terminating
fixes to the IAF. If no route is depicted, you should have
a predetermined plan of action to fly from the STAR
terminating fix to the IAF in the event of a communication
failure.
Reviewing the Approach
Once the aircrew has determined which approach to
expect, review the approach chart thoroughly before
entering the terminal area. Aircrews should check fuel level
and make sure a prolonged hold or increased headwinds
have not cut into the aircraft’s fuel reserves because there is
always a chance the pilot has to make a missed approach or
go to an alternate. By completing landing checklists early,
aircrews can concentrate on the approach.
In setting up for the expected approach procedure when
using an RNAV, GPS, or FMS system, it is important to
understand how multiple approaches to the same runway
are coded in the database. When more than one RNAV
procedure is issued for the same runway, there must be a
way to differentiate between them within the equipment’s
database, as well as to select which procedure is to be
used. (Multiple procedures may exist to accommodate GPS
receivers and FMS, both with and without VNAV capability.)
Each procedure name incorporates a letter of the alphabet,
starting with Z and working backward through Y, X, W, and
so on. (Naming conventions for approaches are covered in
more depth in the next chapter). [Figure 3-15]
Figure 3-14. Arrival clearance.
NOT FOR
NAVIGATION
NE-3, 21 O
OV 2010
Figure 3-15. Two RNAV (GPS) approaches to Runway 15R at Baltimore. A controller issuing a clearance for one of these approaches
would speak the identifying letter—for example, “...cleared for the RNAV (GPS) Yankee approach, Runway 15R...”
Altitude
Upon arrival in the terminal area, ATC either clears the
aircraft to a specific altitude, or they give it a “descend
via” clearance that instructs the pilot to follow the
altitudes published on the STAR. [Figure 3-16] Pilots are
not authorized to leave their last assigned altitude unless
specifically cleared to do so. If ATC amends the altitude or
route to one that is different from the published procedure,
the rest of the charted descent procedure is canceled. ATC
assigns any further route, altitude, or airspeed clearances,
as necessary. Notice the JANESVILLE FOUR ARRIVAL depicts
only one published arrival route, with no named transition
routes leading to the basic STAR procedure beginning at
the Janesville VOR/DME. VNAV planning information is
included for turbojet and turboprop aircraft at the bottom
of the chart. Additionally, note that there are several ways to
identify the BRIBE reporting point using alternate formation
radials, some of which are from off- chart NAVAIDs. ATC may
issue a descent clearance that includes a crossing altitude
restriction. In the PENNS ONE ARRIVAL, the ATC clearance
authorizes aircraft to descend at the pilots’ discretion, as
long as the pilot crosses the PENNS Intersection at 6,000
feet MSL. [Figure 3-17]
In the United States, Canada, and many other countries,
the common altitude for changing to the standard
altimeter setting of 29.92 inches of mercury ("Hg) (or
1013.2 hectopascals or millibars) when climbing to the high
altitude structure is 18,000 feet. When descending from
high altitude, the altimeter should be changed to the local
altimeter setting when passing through FL 180, although
in most countries throughout the world the change to or
from the standard altimeter setting is not done at the same
altitude for each instance.
For example, the flight level where aircrews change their
altimeter setting to the local altimeter setting is specified
by ATC each time they arrive at a specific airport. This
information is shown on STAR charts outside the United
States with the words: TRANS LEVEL: BY ATC. When
departing from that same airport (also depicted typically on
the STAR chart), the altimeter should be set to the standard
setting when passing through 5,000 feet, as an example.
This means that altimeter readings when flying above
5,000 feet are actual flight levels, not feet. This is common
for Europe, but very different for pilots experienced with
flying in the United States and Canada.
Although standardization of these procedures for terminal
locations is subject to local considerations, specific criteria
apply in developing new or revised arrival procedures.
Normally, high performance aircraft enter the terminal
area at or above 10,000 feet above the airport elevation
and begin their descent 30 to 40 NM from touchdown on
the landing runway. Unless pilots indicate an operational
need for a lower altitude, descent below 5,000 feet above
the airport elevation is typically limited to an altitude where
Figure 3-16. Assigned altitudes.
final descent and glideslope/glidepath intercept can be
made without exceeding specific obstacle clearance and
other related arrival, approach, and landing criteria.
Arrival delays typically are absorbed at a metering fix.
This fix is established on a route prior to the terminal
airspace, 10,000 feet or more above the airport elevation.
The metering fix facilitates profile descents, rather than
controllers using delaying vectors or a holding pattern at
low altitudes. Descent restrictions normally are applied
prior to reaching the final approach phase to preclude
relatively high descent rates close in to the destination
airport. At least 10 NM from initial descent from 10,000
feet above the airport elevation, the controller issues
an advisory that details when to expect to commence
the descent. ATC typically uses the phraseology, “Expect
descent in (number) miles. ” Standard ATC phraseology
is, “Maintain (altitude) until specified point (e.g., abeam
landing runway end), cleared for visual approach or expect
visual or contact approach clearance in (number of miles,
minutes, or specified point). ”
Once the determination is made regarding the instrument
approach and landing runway pilots use, ATC will not
permit a change to another NAVAID that is not aligned with
the landing runway. When altitude restrictions are required
for separation purposes, ATC avoids assigning an altitude
NOT FOR NAVIGATION
"
"Piper 6319K, cross PENNS Intersection at 6,000, maintain 6,000.
NE-2, 21 OCT 2010 to 18 NOV 2010
If you are at RACKI Intersection at 12,000 feet
MSL, you must adjust your rate of descent so
you can reach 6,000 feet MSL in the distance
available. At a groundspeed of 180 knots (3
NM per minute), you will reach PENNS
Intersection in approximately 8 minutes (23 ÷ 3
= 7.6). You must descend at least 750 feet per
minute to cross PENNS at 6,000 feet MSL
(6,000 ÷ 8 = 750).
You are at HAYED Intersection at 12,000 feet MSL. Your planned rate of descent is 500 fpm and your groundspeed
is approximately 180 knots (3 NM per minute). You should begin your descent no less than 36 NM from PENNS
Intersection ([6,000 ÷ 500] x 3 = 36).
NE-2, 21 OCT 2010 to 18 NOV 2010
Figure 3-17. Altitude restrictions.
below 5,000 feet above the airport elevation.
There are numerous exceptions to the high performance
aircraft arrival procedures previously outlined. For example,
in a non-radar environment, the controller may clear the
flight to use an approach based on a NAVAID other than
the one aligned with the landing runway, such as a circling
approach. In this case, the descent to a lower altitude
usually is limited to the circling approach area with the
circle-to-land maneuver confined to the traffic pattern.
IFR en route descent procedures should include a review
of minimum, maximum, mandatory, and recommended
altitudes that normally precede the fix or NAVAID facility
to which they apply. The initial descent gradient for a low
altitude instrument approach procedure does not exceed
500 ft/NM (approximately 5°), and for a high altitude
approach, the maximum allowable initial gradient is 1,000
ft/NM (approximately 10°).
Remember during arrivals, when cleared for an instrument
approach, maintain the last assigned altitude until
established on a published segment of the approach or on
a segment of a published route. If no altitude is assigned
with the approach clearance and the aircraft is already on a
published segment, the pilot can descend to its minimum
altitude for that segment of the approach.
Airspeed
During the arrival, expect to make adjustments in speed at
the controller’s request. When pilots fly a high-performance
aircraft on an IFR flight plan, ATC may ask them to adjust
their airspeed to achieve proper traffic sequencing
and separation. This also reduces the amount of radar
vectoring required in the terminal area. When operating
a reciprocating engine or turboprop airplane within 20
NM from the destination airport, 150 knots is usually the
slowest airspeed that is assigned. If the aircraft cannot
maintain the assigned airspeed, the pilot must advise ATC.
Controllers may ask pilots to maintain the same speed as
the aircraft ahead of or behind them on the approach. Pilots
are expected to maintain the specified airspeed ±10 knots.
At other times, ATC may ask pilots to increase or decrease
airspeed by 10 knots, or multiples thereof. When the speed
adjustment is no longer needed, ATC advises the pilot to “ …
resume normal speed. ”
Keep in mind that the maximum speeds specified in 14 CFR
Part 91, § 91.117 still apply during speed adjustments. It is
the pilot’s responsibility to advise ATC if an assigned speed
adjustment would cause an exceedence of these limits.
For operations in Class C or D airspace at or below 2,500
feet above ground level (AGL), within 4 NM of the primary
airport, ATC has the authority to approve a faster speed than
those prescribed in 14 CFR Part 91, § 91.117.
Pilots operating at or above 10,000 feet MSL on an assigned
speed adjustment that is greater than 250 KIAS are expected
to reduce speed to 250 KIAS to comply with 14 CFR Part
91, § 91.117(a) when cleared below 10,000 feet MSL, within
domestic airspace. This speed adjustment is made without
notifying ATC. Pilots are expected to comply with the other
provisions of 14 CFR Part 91, § 91.117 without notifying
ATC. For example, it is normal for faster aircraft to level off
at 10,000 feet MSL while slowing to the 250 KIAS limit that
applies below that altitude, and to level off at 2,500 feet
above airport elevation to slow to the 200 KIAS limit that
applies within the surface limits of Class C or D airspace.
Controllers anticipate this action and plan accordingly.
Speed restrictions of 250 knots do not apply to aircraft
operating beyond 12 NM from the coastline within the
United States Flight Information Region in offshore Class
E airspace below 10,000 feet MSL. In airspace underlying
a Class B airspace area designated for an airport, pilots are
expected to comply with the 200 KIAS limit specified in 14
CFR Part 91, § 91.117(c). (See 14 CFR Part 91, § 91.117(c)
and 91.703.) Approach clearances cancel any previously
assigned speed adjustment.
Holding Patterns
If aircraft reach a clearance limit before receiving a further
clearance from ATC, a holding pattern is required at the
last assigned altitude. Controllers assign holds for a variety
of reasons, including deteriorating weather or high traffic
volume. Holding might also be required following a missed
approach. Since flying outside the area set aside for a
holding pattern could lead to an encounter with terrain
or other aircraft, aircrews need to understand the size of
the protected airspace that a holding pattern provides.
Each holding pattern has a fix, a direction to hold from
the fix, and an airway, bearing, course, radial, or route on
which the aircraft is to hold. These elements, along with the
direction of the turns, define the holding pattern.
Since the speed of the aircraft affects the size of a holding
pattern, maximum holding airspeeds have been designated
to limit the amount of airspace that must be protected. The
three airspeed limits are shown in Figure 2-73 in Chapter 2,
En Route Operations, of this book. Some holding patterns
have additional airspeed restrictions to keep faster aircraft
from flying out of the protected area. These are depicted
on charts by using an icon and the limiting airspeed.
DME and IFR-certified GPS equipment offer some additional
options for holding. Rather than being based on time, the
leg lengths for DME/GPS holding patterns are based on
distances in nautical miles. These patterns use the same
entry and holding procedures as conventional holding
patterns. The controller or the instrument approach
procedure chart specifies the length of the outbound leg.
The end of the outbound leg is determined by the DME
Figure 3-18. Instead of flying for a specific time after passing the holding fix, these holding patterns use distances to mark where the
turns are made. The distances come from DME or IFR-certified GPS equipment.
SE
“ ...Viking 5786P , hold east of the 20 DME fix on the
265° radial of the stedman VORTAC, 5 mile legs... ”
“ ...Bonanza 8394K, hold
northeast of the 16 DME fix on
the 030° radial of the stedman
VORTAC, 5 mile legs... ”