Introduction
Each time a pilot operates an aircraft, the flight normally
begins and ends at an airport. An airport may be a small sod
field or a large complex utilized by air carriers. This chapter
examines airport operations, identifies features of an airport
complex, and provides information on operating on or in the
vicinity of an airport.
Airport Categories
The definition for airports refers to any area of land or water
used or intended for landing or takeoff of aircraft. This
includes, within the five categories of airports listed below,
special types of facilities including seaplane bases, heliports,
and facilities to accommodate tilt rotor aircraft. An airport
includes an area used or intended for airport buildings,
facilities, as well as rights of way together with the buildings
and facilities.
Airport
Operations
Chapter 14
The law defines airports by categories of airport activities,
including commercial service, primary, cargo service,
reliever, and general aviation airports, as shown below:
• Commercial Service Airports—publicly owned
airports that have at least 2,500 passenger boardings
each calendar year and receive scheduled passenger
service. Passenger boardings refer to revenue passenger
boardings on an aircraft in service in air commerce
whether or not in scheduled service. The definition
also includes passengers who continue on an aircraft
in international flight that stops at an airport in any of
the 50 States for a non-traffic purpose, such as refueling
or aircraft maintenance rather than passenger activity.
Passenger boardings at airports that receive scheduled
passenger service are also referred to as Enplanements.
• Cargo Service Airports—airports that, in addition to any
other air transportation services that may be available,
are served by aircraft providing air transportation of
only cargo with a total annual landed weight of more
than 100 million pounds. “Landed weight” means the
weight of aircraft transporting only cargo in intrastate,
interstate, and foreign air transportation. An airport
may be both a commercial service and a cargo service
airport.
• Reliever Airports—airports designated by the FAA
to relieve congestion at Commercial Service Airports
and to provide improved general aviation access to the
overall community. These may be publicly or privately-
owned.
• General Aviation Airports — the remaining airports
are commonly described as General Aviation Airports.
This airport type is the largest single group of airports
in the U.S. system. The category also includes privately
owned, public use airports that enplane 2500 or more
passengers annually and receive scheduled airline
service.
Types of Airports
There are two types of airports—towered and nontowered.
These types can be further subdivided to:
• Civil Airports—airports that are open to the general
public.
• Military/Federal Government airports—airports
operated by the military, National Aeronautics and
Space Administration (NASA), or other agencies of
the Federal Government.
• Private Airports—airports designated for private or
restricted use only, not open to the general public.
Towered Airport
A towered airport has an operating control tower. Air traffic
control (ATC) is responsible for providing the safe, orderly,
and expeditious flow of air traffic at airports where the
type of operations and/or volume of traffic requires such a
service. Pilots operating from a towered airport are required
to maintain two-way radio communication with ATC and to
acknowledge and comply with their instructions. Pilots must
advise ATC if they cannot comply with the instructions issued
and request amended instructions. A pilot may deviate from
an air traffic instruction in an emergency, but must advise
ATC of the deviation as soon as possible.
Nontowered Airport
A nontowered airport does not have an operating control
tower. Two-way radio communications are not required,
although it is a good operating practice for pilots to transmit
their intentions on the specified frequency for the benefit
of other traffic in the area. The key to communicating at an
airport without an operating control tower is selection of the
correct common frequency. The acronym CTAF, which stands
for Common Traffic Advisory Frequency, is synonymous
with this program. A CTAF is a frequency designated for
the purpose of carrying out airport advisory practices while
operating to or from an airport without an operating control
tower. The CTAF may be a Universal Integrated Community
(UNICOM), MULTICOM, Flight Service Station (FSS), or
tower frequency and is identified in appropriate aeronautical
publications. UNICOM is a nongovernment air/ground radio
communication station that may provide airport information
at public use airports where there is no tower or FSS. On pilot
request, UNICOM stations may provide pilots with weather
information, wind direction, the recommended runway, or
other necessary information. If the UNICOM frequency
is designated as the CTAF, it is identified in appropriate
aeronautical publications. Figure 14-1 lists recommended
communication procedures. More information regarding
radio communications is provided later in this chapter.
Nontowered airport traffic patterns are always entered at
pattern altitude. How you enter the pattern depends upon the
direction of arrival. The preferred method for entering from
the downwind side of the pattern is to approach the pattern
on a course 45 degrees to the downwind leg and join the
pattern at midfield.
There are several ways to enter the pattern if you’re coming
from the upwind leg side of the airport. One method of entry
from the opposite side of the pattern is to announce your
intentions and cross over midfield at least 500 feet above
UNICOM
(no tower or FSS)
No tower, FSS,
or UNICOM
No tower in
operation, FSS open
FSS closed
(no tower)
Tower or FSS
not in operation
Communicate with UNICOM
station on published CTAF
frequency (122.7, 122.8, 122.725,
122.975, or 123.0). If unable to
contact UNICOM station, use self-
announce procedures on CTAF.
Self-announce on MULTICOM
frequency 122.9.
Communicate with FSS on CTAF
frequency.
Self-announce on CTAF.
Self-announce on CTAF.
Before taxiing and
before taxiing on the
runway for departure.
Before taxiing and
before taxiing on the
runway for departure.
Before taxiing and
before taxiing on the
runway for departure.
Before taxiing and
before taxiing on the
runway for departure.
Before taxiing and
before taxiing on the
runway for departure.
10 miles out.
Entering downwind,
base, and final.
Leaving the runway.
10 miles out.
Entering downwind,
base, and final.
Leaving the runway.
10 miles out.
Entering downwind,
base, and final.
Leaving the runway.
10 miles out.
Entering downwind,
base, and final.
Leaving the runway.
10 miles out.
Entering downwind,
base, and final.
Leaving the runway.
Facility at Airport Frequency Use
Communication/Broadcast Procedures
Departing final
approach fix (name)
or on final approach
segment inbound.
Approach
completed/terminated.
Practice Instrument
ApproachOutbound Inbound
Figure 14-1. Recommended communication procedures.
pattern altitude (normally 1,500 feet AGL.) However, if large or
turbine aircraft operate at your airport, it is best to remain 2,000
feet AGL so you are not in conflict with their traffic pattern.
When well clear of the pattern—approximately 2 miles–scan
carefully for traffic, descend to pattern altitude, then turn right
to enter at 45° to the downwind leg at midfield. [Figure 14-2]
An alternate method is to enter on a midfield crosswind at
pattern altitude, carefully scan for traffic, announce your
intentions, and then turn downwind. [Figure 14-3] This
technique should not be used if the pattern is busy. Always
remember to give way to aircraft on the preferred 45° entry
and to aircraft already established on downwind.
In either case, it is vital to announce your intentions, and
remember to scan outside. Before joining the downwind
leg, adjust your course or speed to blend into the traffic.
Adjust power on the downwind leg, or sooner, to fit into
the flow of traffic. Avoid flying too fast or too slow. Speeds
recommended by the airplane manufacturer should be used.
They will generally fall between 70 to 80 knots for fixed-gear
singles and 80 to 90 knots for high-performance retractable.
Sources for Airport Data
When a pilot flies into a different airport, it is important to
review the current data for that airport. This data provides the
pilot with information, such as communication frequencies,
services available, closed runways, or airport construction.
Three common sources of information are:
• Aeronautical Charts
• Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility
Directory)
• Notices to Airmen (NOTAMs)
• Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
Aeronautical Charts
Aeronautical charts provide specific information on airports.
Chapter 16, “Navigation,” contains an excerpt from an
aeronautical chart and an aeronautical chart legend, which
provides guidance on interpreting the information on the chart.
Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility
Directory)
The Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility
Directory) provides the most comprehensive information on
a given airport. It contains information on airports, heliports,
and seaplane bases that are open to the public. The Chart
Supplement U.S. is published in seven books, which are
organized by regions and are revised every 56 days. The
Chart Supplement U.S. is also available digitally at www.faa.
Figure 14-4. Chart Supplement U.S. (formerly Airport/Facility
Directory excerpt.
Pattern altitude
+500 feet
Descend to
pattern altitude,
then turn
Yield to
downwind
traffic and
enter
midfield
downwind
at 45°
1
3
4
Fly clear of
traffic pattern
(approx. 2 mi.)
2
Figure 14-2. Preferred Entry-Crossing Midfield.
Yield to the preferred
45° and downwind
traffic, then turn
downwind
Pattern altitude
Figure 14-3. Alternate Midfield Entry.
gov/air_traffic/flight_info/aeronav. Figure 14-4 contains an
excerpt from a directory. For a complete listing of information
provided in a Chart Supplement U.S. and how the information
may be decoded, refer to the “Legend Sample” located in the
front of each Chart Supplement U.S.
In addition to airport information, each Chart Supplement
U.S. contains information such as special notices, Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) and National Weather
Service (NWS) telephone numbers, preferred instrument
flight rules (IFR) routing, visual flight rules (VFR) waypoints,
a listing of very high frequency (VHF) omnidirectional range
(VOR) receiver checkpoints, aeronautical chart bulletins, land
and hold short operations (LAHSO) for selected airports,
airport diagrams for selected towered airports, en route
flight advisory service (EFAS) outlets, parachute jumping
areas, and facility telephone numbers. It is beneficial to
review a Chart Supplement U.S. to become familiar with the
information it contains.
Notices to Airmen (NOTAM)
Time-critical aeronautical information, which is of a temporary
nature or not sufficiently known in advance to permit
publication, on aeronautical charts or in other operational
publications receives immediate dissemination by the
NOTAM system. The NOTAM information could affect your
decision to make the flight. It includes such information as
taxiway and runway closures, construction, communications,
changes in status of navigational aids, and other information
essential to planned en route, terminal, or landing operations.
Exercise good judgment and common sense by carefully
regarding the information readily available in NOTAMs.
Prior to any flight, pilots should check for any NOTAMs that
could affect their intended flight. For more information on
NOTAMs, refer back to Chapter 1, “Pilot and Aeronautical
Information” section.
Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS)
The Automated Terminal Information Service (ATIS) is a
recording of the local weather conditions and other pertinent
non-control information broadcast on a local frequency in a
looped format. It is normally updated once per hour but is
updated more often when changing local conditions warrant.
Important information is broadcast on ATIS including
weather, runways in use, specific ATC procedures, and any
airport construction activity that could affect taxi planning.
When the ATIS is recorded, it is given a code. This code is
changed with every ATIS update. For example, ATIS Alpha
is replaced by ATIS Bravo. The next hour, ATIS Charlie is
recorded, followed by ATIS Delta and progresses down the
alphabet.
Prior to calling ATC, tune to the ATIS frequency and listen to
the recorded broadcast. The broadcast ends with a statement
containing the ATIS code. For example, “Advise on initial
contact, you have information Bravo.” Upon contacting the
tower controller, state information Bravo was received. This
allows the tower controller to verify the pilot has the current
local weather and airport information without having to
state it all to each pilot who calls. This also clears the tower
frequency from being overtaken by the constant relay of
the same information, which would result without an ATIS
broadcast. The use of ATIS broadcasts at departure and arrival
airports is not only a sound practice but a wise decision.
Airport Markings and Signs
There are markings and signs used at airports that provide
directions and assist pilots in airport operations. It is important
for you to know the meanings of the signs, markings, and lights
that are used on airports as surface navigational aids. All airport
markings are painted on the surface, whereas some signs are
vertical and some are painted on the surface. An overview of the
most common signs and markings are described on the following
pages. Additional information may be found in Chapter 2,
“Aeronautical Lighting and Other Airport Visual Aids,” of
the Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).
Runway Markings and Signs
Runway markings vary depending on the type of operations
conducted at the airport. A basic VFR runway may only
have centerline markings and runway numbers. Refer to
Appendix C of this publication for an example of the most
common runway markings that are found at airports.
Since aircraft are affected by the wind during takeoffs and
landings, runways are laid out according to the local prevailing
winds. Runway numbers are in reference to magnetic north.
Certain airports have two or even three runways laid out in the
same direction. These are referred to as parallel runways and
are distinguished by a letter added to the runway number (e.g.,
runway 36L (left), 36C (center), and 36R (right)).
Relocated Runway Threshold
It is sometimes necessary, due to construction or runway
maintenance, to close only a portion of a runway. When
a portion of a runway is closed, the runway threshold is
relocated as necessary. It is referred to as a relocated threshold
and methods for identifying the relocated threshold vary. A
common way for the relocated threshold to be marked is
a ten foot wide white bar across the width of the runway.
[Figure 14-5A and B]
When the threshold is relocated, the closed portion of the
runway is not available for use by aircraft for takeoff or
landing, but it is available for taxi. When a threshold is
relocated, it closes not only a set portion of the approach
end of a runway, but also shortens the length of the opposite
direction runway. Yellow arrow heads are placed across the
width of the runway just prior to the threshold bar.
Displaced Threshold
A displaced threshold is a threshold located at a point on
the runway other than the designated beginning of the
runway. Displacement of a threshold reduces the length
of runway available for landings. The portion of runway
behind a displaced threshold is available for takeoffs in either
direction, or landings from the opposite direction. A ten feet
wide white threshold bar is located across the width of the
runway at the displaced threshold, and white arrows are
located along the centerline in the area between the beginning
of the runway and displaced threshold. White arrow heads
are located across the width of the runway just prior to the
threshold bar. [Figure 14-6A and B]
A B
36
Figure 14-5. (A) Relocated runway threshold drawing. (B) Relocated threshold for Runway 36 at Joplin Regional Airport (JLN).
Runway Safety Area
The runway safety area (RSA) is a defined surface
surrounding the runway prepared, or suitable, for reducing
the risk of damage to airplanes in the event of an undershoot,
overshoot, or excursion from the runway. The dimensions
of the RSA vary and can be determined by using the
criteria contained within AC 150/5300-13, Airport Design,
Chapter 3. Figure 3-1 in AC 150/5300-13 depicts the RSA.
Additionally, it provides greater accessibility for firefighting
and rescue equipment in emergency situations.
The RSA is typically graded and mowed. The lateral
boundaries are usually identified by the presence of the
runway holding position signs and markings on the adjoining
taxiway stubs. Aircraft should not enter the RSA without
making sure of adequate separation from other aircraft during
operations at uncontrolled airports. [Figure 14-7]
Runway Safety Area Boundary Sign
Some taxiway stubs also have a runway safety area boundary
sign that faces the runway and is visible to you only when
exiting the runway. This sign has a yellow background with
black markings and is typically used at towered airports
where a controller commonly requests you to report clear of
a runway. This sign is intended to provide you with another
visual cue that is used as a guide to determine when you are
clear of the runway safety boundary area. The sign shown in
Figure 14-8 is what you would see when exiting the runway at
Taxiway Kilo. You are out of the runway safety area boundary
when the entire aircraft passes the sign and the accompanying
surface painted marking.
Runway Holding Position Sign
Noncompliance with a runway holding position sign may
result in the FAA filing a Pilot Deviation against you. A
A
17
××
B
Figure 14-6. (A) Displaced runway threshold drawing. (B) Displaced threshold for Runway 17 at Albuquerque International Airport (ABQ).
27
9
27B9A
9 C
Typical Runway Safety Area
Figure 14-7. Runway Safety Area.
Figure 14-9. Runway holding position sign at takeoff end of Runway
14 with collocated Taxiway Alpha location sign.
Figure 14-8. Runway safety area boundary sign and marking located
on Taxiway Kilo.
runway holding position sign is an airport version of a
stop sign. [Figure 14-9] It may be seen as a sign and/or its
characters painted on the airport pavement. The sign has
white characters outlined in black on a red background. It is
always collocated with the surface painted holding position
markings and is located where taxiways intersect runways.
On taxiways that intersect the threshold of the takeoff runway,
only the designation of the runway may appear on the sign.
If a taxiway intersects a runway somewhere other than at
the threshold, the sign has the designation of the intersecting
runway. The runway numbers on the sign are arranged to
correspond to the relative location of the respective runway
thresholds. Figure 14-10 shows “18-36” to indicate the
threshold for Runway 18 is to the left and the threshold for
Figure 14-10. Runway holding position sign at a location other
than the takeoff end of Runway 18-36 with collocated Taxiway
Alpha location sign.
Runway 36 is to the right. The sign also indicates that you
are located on Taxiway Alpha.
If the runway holding position sign is located on a taxiway
at the intersection of two runways, the designations for
both runways are shown on the sign along with arrows
showing the approximate alignment of each runway.
[Figure 14-11A and B] In addition to showing the
approximate runway alignment, the arrows indicate the
direction(s) to the threshold of the runway whose designation
is immediately next to each corresponding arrow.
This type of taxiway and runway/runway intersection
geometry can be very confusing and create navigational
challenges. Extreme caution must be exercised when taxiing
onto or crossing this type of intersection. Figure 14-11A and
B shows a depiction of a taxiway, runway/runway intersection
and is also designated as a “hot spot” on the airport diagram.
In the example, Taxiway Bravo intersects with two runways,
31-13 and 35-17, which cross each other.
Surface painted runway holding position signs may also be
used to aid you in determining the holding position. These
markings consist of white characters on a red background
and are painted on the left side of the taxiway centerline.
Figure 14-12 shows a surface painted runway holding
position sign that is the holding point for Runway 32R-14L.
You should never allow any part of your aircraft to cross the
runway holding position sign (either a vertical or surface
painted sign) without a clearance from ATC. Doing so poses
a hazard to yourself and others.
When the tower is closed or you are operating at a nontowered
airport, you may taxi past a runway holding position sign only
when the runway is clear of aircraft, and there are no aircraft on
final approach. You may then proceed with extreme caution.
Runway Holding Position Marking
Noncompliance with a runway holding position marking
may result in the FAA filing a Pilot Deviation against you.
Runway holding position markings consist of four yellow
lines, two solid and two dashed, that are painted on the surface
and extend across the width of the taxiway to indicate where
the aircraft should stop when approaching a runway. These
markings are painted across the entire taxiway pavement, are
in alignment, and are collocated with the holding position
sign as described above.
As you approach the runway, two solid yellow lines and two
dashed lines will be visible. Prior to reaching the solid lines, it
is imperative to stop and ensure that no portion of the aircraft
intersects the first solid yellow line. Do not cross the double
solid lines until a clearance from ATC has been received.
[Figure 14-13] When the tower is closed or when operating at
a nontowered airport, you may taxi onto or across the runway
only when the runway is clear and there are no aircraft on final
approach. You should use extreme caution when crossing or
taxiing onto the runway and always look both ways.
When exiting the runway, the same markings will be seen
except the aircraft will be approaching the double dashed
lines. [Figure 14-14] In order to be clear of the runway, the
entire aircraft must cross both the dashed and solid lines.
An ATC clearance is not needed to cross this marking when
exiting the runway.
Runway Distance Remaining Signs
Runway distance remaining signs have a black background
with a white number and may be installed along one or both
sides of the runway. [Figure 14-15] The number on the
signs indicates the distance, in thousands of feet, of landing
runway remaining. The last sign, which has the numeral “1,”
is located at least 950 feet from the runway end.
Runway Designation Marking
Runway numbers and letters are determined from the
approach direction. The runway number is the whole number
nearest one-tenth the magnetic azimuth of the centerline of the
runway, measured clockwise from the magnetic north. In the
case where there are parallel runways, the letters differentiate
between left (L), right (R), or center (C). [Figure 14-16] For
example, if there are two parallel runways, they would show
the designation number and then either L or R beneath it.
For three parallel runways, the designation number would
be presented with L, C, or R beneath it.