ond body always exerts on the first, a force that is
equal in magnitude but opposite in direction.
NONTOWERED AIRPORTS—An airport without
an operating control tower.
NOTAM (NOTICE TO AIRMEN)—A notice con-
taining information concerning facilities, services,
or procedures, the timely knowledge of which is
essential to personnel concerned with flight opera-
tions.
OPERATING LIMITATIONS—Limitations pub-
lished by aircraft manufacturers to define limita-
tions on maneuvers, flight load factors, speeds and
other limits. Presented in the aircraft in the form
of placards and printed in the limitations section
of the aircraft flight manual.
OVERSHOOTING—The act of over flying an in-
tended spot for landing or flying through a course
intended for intercept.
PARAFOIL—See RAM-AIR WING.
PARALLEL RUNW AYS—Two or more runways at
the same airport whose centerlines are parallel. In
addition to runway number, parallel runways are
designated as L(left) and R(right) or if three paral-
lel runways exist, L(left), C (center) and R(right).
PARASITE DRAG—That part of total drag created
by the design or shape of PPC parts. Parasite drag
increases with an increase in airspeed.
PART 1—Federal Aviation Regulation from 14 CFR,
pertaining to definitions and abbreviations of
terms.
PART 61—Federal Aviation Regulation from 14
CFR, pertaining to the issuance of pilot and in-
structor certificates and ratings.
PART 67—Federal Aviation Regulation from 14
CFR, pertaining to medical standards and certifi-
cation for pilots.
PART 91—Federal Aviation Regulation from 14
CFR, pertaining to general operating and flight
rules.
PATTERN ALTITUDE—The common altitude used
for aircraft maneuvering in the traffic pattern. Usu-
ally 1,000 above the airport surface.
PENDULUM—A body so suspended from a fixed
point as to move to and fro by the action of gravity
and acquired momentum.
PENDULUM EFFECT—The characteristic of the
cart weight hanging below the wing that stabilizes
the wing pitching moment and the cart underneath
the wing for unaccelerated flight. This cart weight
(pendulum) can also create momentum of the cart
rotating around the wing.
PERSONALITY TENDENCIES—Personal traits
and characteristics of an individual that are set at a
very early age and extremely resistant to change.
P-FACTOR—A tendency for an aircraft to yaw to
the left due to the descending propeller blade on
the right producing more thrust than the ascending
blade on the left. This occurs when the aircraft’s
longitudinal axis is in a climbing attitude in rela-
tion to the relative wind. The P-factor would be
to the right if the aircraft had a counterclockwise
rotating propeller.
PILOTAGE—Navigational technique based on flight
by reference to ground landmarks.
PILOT IN COMMAND—The pilot responsible for
the operation and safety of an aircraft.
PILOT’S OPERATING HANDBOOK (POH)—A
document developed by the aircraft manufacturer
and contains the FAA approved Aircraft Flight
Manual (AFM) information.
PITCH—The rotation of a PPC about its lateral axis.
PITCH ANGLE—The angle between the wing and
the horizontal plane of the earth.
PITCH ATTITUDE—The angle of the longitudinal
axis relative to the horizon. Pitch attitude serves
as a visual reference for the pilot to maintain or
change airspeed.
PLACARDS—Small statements or pictorial signs
permanently fixed in the cockpit and visible to the
pilot. Placards are used for operating limitations
(e.g., weight or speeds) or to indicate the position
of an operating lever (e.g., landing gear retracted
or down and locked).
PLANFORM—The shape or form of a wing as
viewed from above. It may be long and tapered,
short and rectangular, or various other shapes.
POH—See PILOT’S OPERATING HANDBOOK.
PORPOISING—Oscillating around the lateral axis
of the aircraft during landing.
PORPOISING EFFECT—The rapid increase in
throttle resulting in a rapid initial pitch up, which
results in the pendulum effect that dampens out
into a steady state climb.
POSITIVE DYNAMIC STABILITY—The tendency
over time for an aircraft to return to a pre-
disturbed state.
POSITIVE STATIC STABILITY—The initial
tendency to return to a state of equilibrium when
disturbed from that state.
POWERED PARACHUTE (PPC)—A powered
aircraft comprised of a flexible or semi-rigid wing
connected to a fuselage (cart) so that the wing is
not in position for flight until the aircraft is in mo-
tion. The fuselage of a powered parachute contains
the aircraft engine, a seat for each occupant and is
attached to the aircraft’s landing gear.
POWER-OFF DESCENT—Aircraft configuration
where a descent occurs with power at idle.
POWERPLANT—A complete engine and propeller
combination with accessories.
PPC—See POWERED PARACHUTE.
PPCL—Powered parachute land.
PPCS—Powered parachute sea.
PRACTICAL TEST—Flight test administered by an
FAA examiner or designated examiner as a pre-
requisite for pilot certification. Successful comple-
tion of the practical test is required to earn a pilot
certificate or rating.
PRACTICAL TEST STANDARDS (PTS)—An FAA
published document of standards that must be met
for the issuance of a particular pilot certificate or
rating. FAA inspectors and designated pilot exam-
iners use these standards when conducting pilot
practical tests, and flight instructors use the PTS
while preparing applicants for practical tests.
PREFLIGHT INSPECTION—Aircraft inspection
conducted to determine if an aircraft is mechani-
cally and legally airworthy.
PRESSURE ALTITUDE—The altitude indicated
when the altimeter setting window (barometric
scale) is adjusted to 29.92. This is the altitude
above the standard datum plane, which is a
theoretical plane where air pressure (corrected
to 15ºC) equals 29.92 in. Hg. Pressure altitude is
used to compute density altitude, true altitude, true
airspeed, and other performance data.
PRIV ATE AIRPORT—Airport that is privately
owned and not available to the public without
prior permission. They are depicted on aeronauti-
cal charts for emergency and landmark purposes.
PRIV ATE PILOT CERTIFICATE—An FAA-issued
pilot certificate permitting carriage of passengers
on a not-for-hire basis. Reference 14 CFR part 61.
PROFICIENCY CHECK—An evaluation of aero-
nautical knowledge and flight proficiency. Refer-
ence part 61. Upon successful completion of the
proficiency check the authorized instructor will
endorse the applicant’s logbook indicating the
added category/class of equipment that the appli-
cant is authorized to operate.
PROPELLER—A device for propelling an aircraft
that, when rotated, produces by its action on the
air, a thrust approximately perpendicular to its
plane of rotation. It includes the control compo-
nents normally supplied by its manufacturer.
PROPELLER BLAST—The volume of air acceler-
ated behind a propeller producing thrust.
PTS—See PRACTICAL TEST STANDARDS.
PUBLIC AIRPORT—Airport that is available to the
aviation public.
PUSHER CONFIGURATION—Propeller configura-
tion where the propeller shaft faces the rear of the
aircraft. Thrust produced by the propeller pushes
the aircraft, rather than pulling it.
RAM-AIR WING—Also known as a parafoil. An
airfoil designed with an aerodynamic cell structure
which is inflated by the wind, forming a classic
wing cross-section that generates lift.
RECIPROCATING ENGINE—An engine that
converts the heat energy from burning fuel into
the reciprocating movement of the pistons. This
movement is converted into a rotary motion by the
connecting rods and crankshaft.
REGISTRATION CERTIFICATE—A federal cer-
tificate that documents aircraft ownership.
RELATIVE WIND—The direction the wind strikes
an airfoil.
RIBS—The parts of an aircraft wing structure that
give the wing its aerodynamic cross section.
Fabric covers the ribs and gives the PPC wing its
airfoil shape.
RISERS—One of several straps that attach the cart
to the suspension lines. Sometimes referred to as
“V lines,” risers are the intermediate link between
the suspension lines and the aircraft.
RISK ELEMENTS—The four fundamental areas of
exposure to risk: the pilot, the aircraft, the envi-
ronment, and the type of operation that comprise
any given aviation situation.
RISK MANAGEMENT—The part of the decision
making process which relies on situational aware-
ness, problem recognition, and good judgment to
reduce risks associated with each flight.
ROLL—The rotation of an aircraft about its longitu-
dinal axis.
ROUNDOUT (FLARE)—A pitch-up during landing
approach to reduce rate of descent and forward
speed prior to touchdown.
RPM—Revolutions per minute. A measure of rota-
tional speed. One RPM is one revolution made in
one minute.
RUNW AY—A defined rectangular area on a land
airport prepared for the landing and takeoff run
of aircraft along its length. Runways are normally
numbered in relation to their magnetic direction
rounded off to the nearest 10 degrees; e.g., Run-
way 1, Runway 25.
RUNW AY INCURSION—Any occurrence at an
airport involving an aircraft, vehicle, person, or
object on the ground that creates a collision hazard
or results in loss of separation with an aircraft tak-
ing off, intending to takeoff, landing, or intending
to land.
SAR—See SEARCH AND RESCUE.
SCANNING—Systematic means of searching for
other aircraft. Scanning is most effective when
successive areas of the sky are brought into focus
using a series of short, regularly spaced eye move-
ments.
SEARCH AND RESCUE (SAR)—A lifesaving
service provided through the combined efforts of
the federal agencies signatory to the National SAR
plan along with state agencies.
SECTIONAL AERONAUTICAL CHARTS—
Designed for visual navigation of slow or me-
dium speed aircraft. Topographic information on
these charts features the portrayal of relief, and a
judicious selection of visual check points for VFR
flight. Aeronautical information includes visual
and radio aids to navigation, airports, controlled
airspace, restricted areas, obstructions and related
data.
SEE AND A VOID—When weather conditions
permit, pilots operating IFR or VFR are required
to observe and maneuver to avoid other aircraft.
Right-of-way rules are contained in 14 CFR part
91.
SEGMENTED CIRCLE—A visual indicator around
a windsock or tetrahedron designed to show the
traffic pattern for each runway.
SHALLOW-BANKED TURN—Turns in which the
bank (less than approximately 20 degrees) is so
shallow that inherent lateral stability of the PPC is
acting to level the wings unless the pilot maintains
the bank.
SINGLE PILOT RESOURCE MANAGEMENT
(SRM)—Area of human factors study that ad-
dresses application of management skills in the
cockpit. Single pilots of small aircraft must make
effective use of all available resources; human
resources, hardware, and information.
SITUATIONAL AW ARENESS—The accurate
perception and understanding of all the factors and
conditions within the four fundamental risk ele-
ments that affect safety before, during, and after
the flight.
SKILLS AND PROCEDURES—The procedural,
psychomotor, and perceptual skills used to control
a specific aircraft or its systems. They are the air-
manship abilities that are gained through conven-
tional training, are perfected, and become almost
automatic through experience.
SKIN—The outside covering of an aircraft airframe.
SKIN FRICTION DRAG—The type of parasite drag
resulting from a rough surface which deflects the
streamlines of air on the surface, causing resis-
tance to smooth airflow.
S-LSA (SPECIAL LIGHT-SPORT AIRCRAFT)—
An aircraft issued a special airworthiness cer-
tificate in accordance with 14 CFR 21.290 in
the light-sport category. These aircraft meet the
ASTM industry-developed consensus standards.
SOLO FLIGHT—Flight that is conducted and
logged when a pilot is the sole occupant of an
aircraft.
SPATIAL DISORIENTATION—Specifically refers
to the lack of orientation with regard to the posi-
tion, attitude, or movement of the PPC in space.
SPECIAL USE AIRSPACE—Airspace that exists
where activities must be confined because of their
nature.
SPORT PILOT CERTIFICATE—An FAA-issued
pilot certificate, allowing the holder to operate a
light-sport aircraft in the category, class, make and
model for which they are endorsed to do so.
SRM—See SINGLE PILOT RESOURCE MAN-
AGEMENT.
STABILIZED APPROACH—A landing approach
in which the pilot establishes and maintains a
constant angle glidepath towards a predetermined
point on the landing runway. It is based on the pi-
lot’s judgment of certain visual cues, and depends
on the maintenance of a constant final descent
airspeed and configuration.
STALL—A rapid decrease in lift caused by the sepa-
ration of airflow from the wing’s surface brought
on by exceeding the critical angle of attack. A stall
can occur at any pitch attitude or airspeed.
STANDARD AIRPORT TRAFFIC PATTERN—The
left-hand turn traffic flow that is prescribed for air-
craft landing at, taxiing on, or taking off from an
airport. Reference 14 CFR 91.126 (a)(1) and AIM
Chapter 4 Section 3.
STATIC PRESSURE—The pressure of air that is
still, or not moving, measured perpendicular to the
surface exposed to the air.
STEEP TURN—Turn resulting from a degree of
bank (45 degrees or more) at which the overbank-
ing tendency of a PPC overcomes stability, and
the bank increases unless the steering controls are
applied to prevent it.
STEERING BARS—Located just aft of the nose-
wheel and mounted on each side of the aircraft,
the steering bars move forward and back when the
pilot applies foot pressure. Pushing either one of
the steering bars causes the steering lines to pull
down on the corresponding surface of the trailing
edge on the wing which banks the PPC into a turn.
STEERING LINES—Connected to the steering bars
and routed through pulleys up to the trailing edge
of the parachute.
STRAIGHT-IN APPROACH—Entry into the traffic
pattern by interception of the extended runway
centerline (final approach course) without execut-
ing any other portion of the traffic pattern.
STRESS MANAGEMENT—The personal analysis
of the kinds of stress experienced while flying, the
application of appropriate stress assessment tools,
and other coping mechanisms.
STROBE—A high intensity white flashing light.
Strobe lights are located on aircraft wingtips to
increase aircraft visibility in low light conditions.
STUDENT PILOT CERTIFICATE— An FAA-
issued certificate that permits student pilots to
exercise solo pilot privileges with limitations.
A student’s medical becomes their student pilot
certificate once it is endorsed by their flight
instructor.
SUSPENSION LINES—Lines that run from several
attachment points on the wing down to a set of
cables called risers, which connect to the PPC cart.
TAILWIND—Wind blowing in the same direction
the aircraft is moving. When an aircraft is flying
with a tailwind, its speed over the ground is equal
to its speed through the air, plus the speed the air
is moving over the ground.
TAKEOFF CLEARANCE—ATC authorization for
an aircraft to depart a runway. It is predicated on
known traffic and known physical airport condi-
tions.
TAXI—The movement of an aircraft under its own
power while on the ground.
TAXIW AY—Airport area designated for aircraft
surface movement.
TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRICTION (TFR)—
Designated airspace of specified dimension where
flight is temporarily restricted or prohibited.
NOTAMs are issued to advise airmen of local TFR
restrictions.
TERMINAL RADAR SERVICE AREAS (TRSA)—
Areas where participating pilots can receive addi-
tional radar services. The purpose of the service is
to provide separation between all IFR operations
and participating VFR aircraft.
TFR—See TEMPORARY FLIGHT RESTRIC-
TION.
THERMAL—A buoyant plume or bubble of rising
air.
THROTTLE—The control in an aircraft that regu-
lates the power or thrust the pilot wants the engine
to develop.
THRUST—The force which imparts a change in the
velocity of a mass. A forward force which propels
the powered parachute through the air.
TORQUE—(1) A resistance to turning or twisting.
(2) Forces that produce a twisting or rotating mo-
tion. (3) In a PPC, the tendency of the aircraft to
turn (roll) in the opposite direction of rotation of
the engine and propeller.
TOTAL DRAG—The sum of the parasite and in-
duced drag.
TOUCH AND GO—An operation by an aircraft that
lands and takes off without stopping.
TOUCHDOWN POINT—The point or intended
point at which an aircraft first makes contact with
the landing surface.
TOUCHDOWN ZONE—The portion of a runway,
beyond the threshold, where it is intended landing
aircraft first contact the runway.
TRACK—The actual path made over the ground in
flight.
TRAFFIC PATTERN—The traffic flow that is pre-
scribed for aircraft landing at or taking off from an
airport.
TRAFFIC PATTERN INDICATORS—Ground
based visual indicators that identify traffic pattern
direction at certain airports.
TRAILING EDGE—The portion of the airfoil where
the airflow over the upper surface rejoins the lower
surface airflow.
TRANSPONDER—The airborne portion of the sec-
ondary surveillance radar system. The transponder
emits a reply when queried by a radar facility.
TRICYCLE GEAR CONFIGURATION—Land-
ing gear configuration employing a third wheel
located on the nose of the aircraft.
TRSA—See TERMINAL RADAR SERVICE
AREAS.
TWO-STROKE ENGINE—A simple form of
reciprocating engine that completes its operating
cycle in two strokes of its piston—one down and
one up. Two-stroke-cycle engines are inefficient
in their use of fuel, but their simplicity makes
them popular for powering light-sport aircraft and
ultralight vehicles where light weight and low cost
are paramount.
ULTRALIGHT—A vehicle as defined by 14 CFR
103.1.
UNSTABILIZED APPROACH—The final approach
of an aircraft that has not achieved a stable rate of
descent or controlled flight track by a pre-deter-
mined altitude, usually 500 feet AGL.
UPWIND LEG—A flight path parallel to the landing
runway in the direction of landing.
VEHICLE—Man-made means of transportation; an
ultralight aircraft (not a light-sport aircraft).
VENTURI—A specially shaped restriction in a tube
designed to speed up the flow of fluid passing
through in accordance with Bernoulli’s principle.
Venturis are used in carburetors and in many types
of fluid control devices to produce a pressure
drop proportional to the speed of the fluid passing
through them.
VENTURI EFFECT—The effect of Bernoulli’s
principle, which states that the pressure of a fluid
decreases as it is speeded up without losing or
gaining any energy from the outside.
VERIFIED—Confirmation of information or con-
figuration status.
VERTICAL AXIS (Y AW)—An imaginary line pass-
ing vertically through the center of gravity of an
aircraft. The vertical axis is called the z-axis or the
yaw axis.
VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR (VSI)—An in-
strument that uses static pressure to display a rate
of climb or descent in feet per minute. The VSI
can also sometimes be called a vertical velocity
indicator (VVI).
VERTIGO—A type of spatial disorientation caused
by the physical senses sending conflicting signals
to the brain. Vertigo is especially hazardous when
flying under conditions of poor visibility and may
cause pilot incapacitation, but may be minimized
by confidence in the indication of the flight instru-
ments.
VFR—See VISUAL FLIGHT RULES.
VFR TERMINAL AREA CHARTS—Charts desig-
nated to depict Class B airspace in greater detail
and greater scale than sectional charts.
VISUAL FLIGHT RULES (VFR)—Code of Federal
Regulations that govern the procedures for con-
ducting flight under visual conditions.
V LINES—See RISERS.
VSI—See VERTICAL SPEED INDICATOR.
W AKE TURBULENCE—Wingtip vortices that are
created when an aircraft generates lift. When an
aircraft generates lift, air spills over the wingtips
from the high pressure areas below the wings
to the low pressure areas above them. This flow
causes rapidly rotating whirlpools of air called
wingtip vortices or wake turbulence.
W ASHOUT—A condition in aircraft rigging in
which a wing is twisted so its angle of incidence is
less at the tip than at the root. Washout decreases
the lift the wing produces to improve the stall
characteristics of the wing.
WEATHER BRIEFING—Means for pilots to gather
all information vital to the nature of the flight.
Most often obtained from FSS specialist.
WEATHERV ANE—The tendency to point into the
wind.
WEIGHT—A measure of the heaviness of an object.
The force by which a body is attracted toward the
center of the Earth (or another celestial body) by
gravity. Weight is equal to the mass of the body
times the local value of gravitational acceleration.
One of the four main forces acting on an aircraft.
Equivalent to the actual weight of the aircraft. It
acts downward through the aircraft’s center of
gravity toward the center of the Earth. Weight op-
poses lift.
WEIGHT-SHIFT CONTROL AIRCRAFT—Pow-
ered aircraft with a framed pivoting wing and a
fuselage controllable only in pitch and roll by the
pilot’s ability to change the aircraft’s center of
gravity with respect to the wing. Flight control of
the aircraft depends on the wing’s ability to flex-
ibly deform rather than the use of control surfaces.
WIND CORRECTION ANGLE—Correction ap-
plied to the course to establish a heading so that
track will coincide with course.
WIND DIRECTION INDICATORS—Indicators
that include a wind sock, wind tee, or tetrahedron.
Visual reference will determine wind direction and
runway in use.
WIND DRIFT CORRECTION—Correction applied
to the heading of the aircraft necessary to keep the
aircraft tracking over a desired track.
WIND SHEAR—A sudden, drastic shift in wind-
speed, direction, or both that may occur in the
horizontal or vertical plane.
WING—A ram-air inflated and pressurized fabric
airfoil that produces the lift necessary to support
the powered parachute in flight; including the lines
that attach to the cart. Also called a parachute,
chute, or airfoil.
WING LOADING—The amount of weight that a
wing must support to provide lift.
WINGSPAN—The maximum distance from wingtip
to wingtip.