flight; not easily measured on the instruments or felt
by the pilot in the air.
Pitch angle changes in a PPC are similar to pitch
changes in an airplane being flown at a constant air -
speed. Assuming a typical 3-to-1 glide ratio for a pow-
ered parachute, the pitch increases about 20 degrees
from gliding flight to level flight. The pitch would
increase an additional 20 degrees from level flight to
full power climb, assuming a three-to-one climb path
with a high powered engine. This total pitch change
of 40 degrees from glide to high powered climb is
significant and noticed by the pilot, passenger, and
observers on the ground. Throughout the large pitch
variations of the PPC, the PPC will continue to fly at
about the same airspeed, even with the engine off.
As you descend with the throttle retarded, the nose of
the cart is pointed more towards the ground while the
wing is overhead. As you climb, the nose of the cart
is pointed more towards the sky, and the wing appears
to be rotated in back of you. These are large pitch
changes. A common misunderstanding is that these
pitch changes, which can be as much as 40 degrees,
are a change of angle of attack. This is not the case.
The angle of attack stays almost constant for the same
weight and the same speed, but the pitch angle, espe-
cially as viewed from the cart, changes dramatically.
On a PPC, the angle of trim is determined by the
suspension lines and set at the factory, but the cart
can rotate around the riser attachment point to the
cart. Generally, the angle between the cart and the
wing remains the same; both pitch together rotating
around the center of gravity of the complete aircraft.
[Figure 6-1]
Flying in good atmospheric conditions and using
smooth throttle applications can avoid additional
loading which results in slight increases in angle of
attack and speed.
A common, inappropriate use of the throttle is an
abrupt power application when the engine is at idle.
This abrupt application of throttle from idle to full
The Four Fundamentals
There are four basic flight maneuvers upon which all
flying tasks are based: straight-and-level flight, turns,
climbs, and descents.
In addition, the powered parachute (PPC) has a
unique characteristic, the pendulum effect, as covered
in Chapter 2. This chapter will cover the basic flight
maneuvers and how they are influenced by this pen -
dulum effect.
Flight Controls
The PPC has two basic flight controls:
1. Throttle: used to adjust the vertical speed to
climb or descend
2. Steering controls: used to turn right or left
The wing design, angle of trim, and total weight de -
termine the PPC airspeed, which remains about the
same for most flight operations.
The vast majority of PPC steering is done via either
foot pedals or foot steering bars. However, some PPC
designs incorporate hand steering controls. In addition
to the mechanical hand or foot steering controls, the
steering line itself can be pulled directly or in combi-
nation with the mechanical controls. For simplicity
of the information in this handbook, flight steering
controls will be addressed as foot controls. For those
PPCs with hand steering controls or steering lines that
are pulled directly, substitute “push the foot steering
control” with “pull the hand steering control” or “pull
on the steering line.”
Throttle
While in the air, the throttle provides thrust and there-
fore controls altitude; it is used to climb and descend.
Throttle changes will not measurably affect your air -
speed. The aircraft maintains about the same indicat -
ed airspeed throughout your pitch angle and altitude
changes. There is less than a 1 MPH increase in speed
as the throttle is increased from gliding flight to level
creates a porpoising effect. Gradually increase the
throttle to full to avoid the abrupt porpoising.
Clearing Turns
Pilots should perform clearing turns prior to begin -
ning any maneuver and any turns. Proper clearing
procedures combined with proper visual scanning
techniques are the most effective strategy for colli -
sion avoidance. The essential idea of the clearing turn
is to be certain that the next maneuver is not going
to proceed into another aircraft’s flightpath. Refer to
Chapter 9.
Turning the Powered Parachute
Steering lines run from the foot controls, through a
series of pulleys parallel to the risers and suspension
lines and are connected to the trailing edge of the cor-
responding side of the wing. The right steering line at
the front end is attached to the right steering control
at the cockpit (either foot or hand control), and the
other end is directly attached to the trailing edge of the
right side of the wing. Hence, when you push a foot
steering control, you pull on a steering line and “pull-
down” the trailing edge of the corresponding side of
the wing, which creates drag on that side of the wing’s
trailing edge. The drag from the pulled-down trail -
ing edge slows down and drops that side’s wing, and
the opposite side of the wing simultaneously pivots
around the vertical and longitudinal axes in a coor -
dinated turn. The PPC is designed to fly straight into
the relative wind, which is a key factor in the PPC’s
ability to automatically perform a coordinated turn.
[Figure 6-2]
While airborne, you will turn in the same direction
of the foot steering control that you push: push right
foot—go right; push left foot—go left.
Similar to the pendulum effect with throttle, there
can also be a swinging pendulum effect during turns.
For example, if you are in a stabilized right, medium-
banked turn (approximately 20 to 45 degrees bank),
the pendulum is swinging out opposing the lift com -
ponent of the wing. If an abrupt left turn is initiated,
the wing will start to turn but the momentum of the
cart cannot respond as quickly. This results in the pi -
lot not coordinating the pendulum effect, and can be
avoided with smoother and less abrupt turns so the
cart can keep up with the wing.
Feel of the PPC
The ability to sense a flight condition, without relying
on cockpit instrumentation, is often called “feel of the
PPC,” but senses in addition to “feel” are involved.
Sounds inherent to flight are an important sense in
developing “feel.” The air rushes past the PPC pilot,
who is not typically masked by enclosures. When the
level of sound increases, it indicates that speed is in -
creasing. Also, the powerplant emits distinctive sound
patterns in different conditions of flight as the RPM
is adjusted. The sound of the engine in cruise flight
may be different from that in a climb, and different
again from that in a descent and can aid the pilot in
estimating not only the present airspeed but the air -
speed trend.
The sources of actual “feel” are important to the pilot.
The pilot’s own body responds to forces of accelera -
tion. These “G” loads imposed on the cart are also felt
by the pilot. Increased G loads force the pilot down
Figure 6-1. The cart and wing pitch together.
into the seat or raise the pilot against the seat belt.
Radial accelerations produce side loadings, which
will shift the pilot from side to side in the seat. These
forces need not be strong, only perceptible by the pilot
to be useful.
An accomplished pilot who has excellent “feel” for
the PPC will be able to understand and coordinate the
rate of bank change so as not to overshoot the desired
course or bank, and ultimately be able to anticipate
the pendulum effect. The wing trailing edge control
surfaces move in the airstream and meet resistance
proportional to the speed and weight of the cart. When
the cart is heavy and flying faster, the steering con -
trols are stiffer and harder to move because the wing
internal pressure is higher. When the cart is light and
flying slower, there is less force required and controls
move easier.
The senses that contribute to “feel” of the airplane
are inherent in people. However, “feel” must be de -
veloped. The flight instructor should direct the begin-
ning pilot to be attuned to these senses and teach an
awareness of their meaning as it relates to various
conditions of flight. To do this effectively, the flight
instructor must fully understand the difference be -
tween perceiving something and merely noticing it. It
is a well established fact that the pilot who develops
a “feel” for the PPC early in flight training will have
little difficulty with advanced flight maneuvers.
Attitude Flying
In a PPC, flying by attitude means visually establish-
ing the aircraft’s attitude with reference to the natural
horizon. [Figure 6-3] Attitude is the angular difference
measured between an aircraft’s axis and the line of the
Earth’s horizon. Pitch attitude is the angle formed by
the longitudinal axis of the aircraft and the horizon.
Bank attitude is the angle formed by the lateral axis
with the horizon.
In attitude flying, the PPC pilot controls two compo -
nents: pitch and bank.
• Pitch control is the control of the PPC about the
lateral axis by using the throttle to raise and
lower the nose in relation to the natural horizon.
• Bank control is control of the PPC about the
longitudinal axis by use of the PPC steering
controls to attain a desired bank angle in
relation to the natural horizon.
Straight-and-Level Flight
It is impossible to emphasize too strongly the neces -
sity for forming correct habits in flying straight and
level. All other flight maneuvers are in essence a de -
viation from this fundamental flight maneuver. Per -
fection in straight-and-level flight will not come of
itself. It is not uncommon to find a pilot whose basic
flying ability consistently falls just short of minimum
expected standards, and upon analyzing the reasons
for the shortcomings to discover that the cause is the
inability to properly fly straight and level.
Figure 6-2. Apply steering input to one side of the trailing edge to turn.
Straight-and-level flight is flight in which a constant
heading and altitude are maintained. It is accomplished
by making immediate and measured corrections for
deviations in direction and altitude from unintentional
slight turns, descents, and climbs. Level flight, at first,
is a matter of consciously fixing the relationship of
the position of some portion of the PPC, used as a
reference point, with the horizon. In establishing the
reference points, place the PPC in the desired posi -
tion and select a reference point. No two pilots see
this relationship exactly the same. The references will
depend on where the pilot is sitting, the pilot’s height
(whether short or tall), and the pilot’s manner of sit -
ting. It is, therefore, important that during the fixing
of this relationship, you sit in a normal manner; other-
wise the points will not be the same when the normal
position is resumed.
In learning to control the aircraft in level flight, it is
important to use only slight control movements, just
enough to produce the desired result. Pilots need to
associate the apparent movement of the references
with the forces which produce it. In this way, you can
develop the ability to regulate the change desired in
the aircraft’s attitude by the amount and direction of
forces applied to the controls.
The pitch attitude for level flight (constant altitude) is
usually obtained by selecting some portion of the air-
craft’s nose as a reference point, and then keeping that
point in a fixed position relative to the horizon. [Figure
6-4] Using the principles of attitude flying, that posi -
tion should be cross-checked occasionally against the
altimeter (if so equipped) to determine whether or not
the pitch attitude is correct. If altitude is being gained
or lost, the pitch attitude should be readjusted in rela-
tion to the horizon and then the altimeter rechecked to
determine if altitude is now being maintained. The ap-
plication of increasing and decreasing throttle is used
to control this attitude.
In all normal maneuvers, the term “increase the pitch
attitude” implies raising the nose in relation to the ho-
rizon (by increasing power); the term “decreasing the
pitch attitude” means lowering the nose (by decreas -
Figure 6-3. PPC attitude is based on relative positions of the aircraft on the natural horizon.
Figure 6-4. Nose reference for straight-and-level flight.
titude adjustment. Throttle has a slight delay between
implementation and response in increasing altitude;
flare relatively quickly increases altitude but can only
hold altitude changes temporarily (about 2 seconds).
This would be like applying flaps on an airplane if no
elevator control was available.
While trying to maintain a constant altitude, especially
when close to the ground, you can fly with about one-
third flare. By holding a small flare, if you encounter
downdrafts, you can immediately add a large portion
of flare to lift you back to the desired altitude. If the
PPC begins to climb, then you can reduce the amount
of the flare to return to the desired altitude, until you
can adjust your throttle position again.
Common errors in the performance of straight-and-
level flight are:
• Attempting to use improper reference points on
the aircraft to establish attitude.
• Forgetting the location of preselected reference
points on subsequent flights.
• Attempting to establish or correct aircraft
attitude using flight instruments rather than
outside visual reference.
• Overcontrol and lack of feel.
• Improper scanning and/or devoting insufficient
time to outside visual reference.
• Fixation on the nose (pitch attitude) reference
point.
• Unnecessary or inappropriate control inputs.
• Failure to make timely and measured control
inputs when deviations from straight-and-level
flight are detected.
• Inadequate attention to sensory inputs in
developing feel for the PPC.
Level Turns
A turn is made by banking the wing in the direction of
the desired turn. A specific angle of bank is selected
by the pilot, control pressures applied to achieve the
desired bank angle, and appropriate control pressures
exerted to maintain the desired bank angle once it is
established.
Both primary controls are used in close coordination
when making level turns. Their functions are as follows.
• The steering bars bank the wings and so
determine the rate of turn.
• The throttle determines vertical speed and must
be increased during a turn for the PPC to remain
level. The greater the degree of turn, the greater
the throttle/thrust required to remain level; this
is similar to an airplane and weight-shift control
aircraft.
ing power). While foot controls do have an effect on
altitude, they are not typically used as a control for
flying straight and level. A PPC must be capable of
maintaining altitude to tolerances using the controls
as designed.
Anytime the wing is banked, even very slightly, the
aircraft will turn. In a PPC the pilot has no useful
reference to measure bank angle like an airplane or
weight shift control aircraft where the wing tips are
visible in relation to the horizon. The objective of
straight-and-level flight is to detect small deviations
from laterally level flight as soon as they occur, neces-
sitating only small corrections. Reference to the mag-
netic compass or GPS, if so equipped, can be made
to note any change in direction; however, the visual
reference of a point on the horizon with a point on the
aircraft such as the front wheel or instrument panel
will typically be used for sport pilot training.
Continually observing the nose to align the heading
should be avoided. The pilot must spend more time
scanning for air traffic than focusing on heading. This
helps divert the pilot’s attention from the aircraft’s
nose, prevents a fixed stare, and automatically ex -
pands the pilot’s area of vision by increasing the range
necessary for the pilot’s vision to cover.
Straight-and-level flight requires almost no applica -
tion of control pressures if the aircraft is properly
trimmed to fly straight and the air is smooth. Some
PPCs will have a directional trim control which ad -
justs the tension in a control line to make it fly straight.
Each PPC manufacturer has a unique design for their
particular aircraft. The pilot must not form the habit
of constantly moving the controls unnecessarily. You
must learn to recognize when corrections are neces -
sary, and then make a measured response. Tolerances
necessary for passing the PPC practical test are ±10
degrees heading and ±100 feet altitude. Students may
initially start to make corrections when tolerances are
exceeded but should strive to initiate a correction be-
fore the tolerances are exceeded, such as starting cor-
rection before the tolerance is ±5 degreees heading
and ±50 feet altitude.
Since the PPC does not have an elevator to control the
pitch, immediate minor adjustments should be made
while flying close to the ground. In flying a low ap -
proach (flying straight and level over the centerline of
the runway at a low but specified distance from the
ground), think of the throttle as the coarse and slow
response altitude control, and application of both
steering controls (flare) as the fine adjustments to al -
For purposes of this discussion, turns are divided into
three types: shallow, medium, and steep.
• Shallow turns are those in which the bank is
less than approximately 20°.
• Medium turns are those resulting from
approximately 20° to 45° of bank.
• Steep turns are those resulting from 45° or
more of bank. Steep turns are generally not
recommended in a PPC.
Bank angle is measured in a PPC from angle of the
horizon and any level component on the PPC, typical-
ly the instrument panel, steering bars, cart frame, or
any other cart component that can provide a horizon-
tal reference. Each design will have its own unique
reference.
Exceeding the limitations specified in the regulations
or in the aircraft pilot operating handbook is consid -
ered aerobatics and not authorized by the manufac -
turer limitations.
To initiate a turn, drag is created on the side of the
wing you want to turn via the steering control bar,
slowing and dropping that wing into the desired bank.
The side without the drag is flying faster and hence
pivots around the slower side. As discussed in Chap -
ter 2, the PPC is designed to track directly into the
relative air stream, similar to a weight-shift control
aircraft. Therefore, no rudder is needed to coordinate
a turn.
A shallow bank produces a noticeable turn but you
likely will not notice an increase in load or airspeed.
A constant pressure is required on the steering bar to
maintain the bank angle for the turn. Abruptly releas-
ing the pressure on the foot bar would typically bring
the PPC back to straight flight because the pendulum
effect is so minor.
A medium bank turn requires more PPC performance
than a shallow bank. Higher and noticeable loads,
plus noticeable airspeed increases are the result of
a medium bank turn. After the bank has been es -
tablished in a medium banked turn, pressure on the
steering control must be maintained to continue the
bank. If the control pressure is released, the PPC will
return to the level position because of the pendulum
stability discussed in Chapter 2. If it is a medium bank
angle, such as 40 degrees, and the pressure is released
abruptly, there will be some dampening oscillations
until the PPC returns to level flight. Slower responses
are required so the bank angle is reduced gradually
to maintain “coordinated pendulum effect.” All PPCs
have unique flying characteristics, but generally, low-
er performance “rectangular” wings would dampen
quicker than higher performance “elliptical” wings.
To maintain altitude during a turn, you must direct -
ly coordinate the amount of steering input with the
amount of throttle increase because of the loss in ver-
tical lift, as covered in Chapter 2. To make a shallow
turn, only a modest amount of steering control input
and throttle increase is required. As the steering in -
put is applied, you will also simultaneously apply the
corresponding amount of throttle increase to maintain
level flight throughout the turn.
The greater the bank angle, the greater the throttle re-
quired to remain in level flight. Also, with increased
bank, greater skill is required to reduce the pendulum
effect when coming out of the turn or reversing the
direction of the turn. [Figure 6-5]
Figure 6-5. To turn, coordinate increased throttle with foot
steering input.
To stop the turn and return to straight-and-level flight,
you need to smoothly release the steering control
input to achieve pendulum effect coordination. The
pendulum stability of the PPC will do the rest to re -
turn to the straight flightpath.
All PPC controls should be manipulated with a smooth
and slow motion. This will prevent pilot induced os-
cillation (PIO). Whether you are pushing the throttle
forward to increase the pitch angle, or pushing the
steering control to induce a turn, both controls should
be operated smoothly and slowly—whether applying
input or removing it. [Figure 6-6]
The rate at which a PPC turns is directly related to
the amount of steering control input. The more input,
the quicker the rate of turn. Be advised, however, if
full steering input is used and adequate throttle is not
Figure 6-6. Push the foot control and pull the steering line
smoothly and slowly.
used to compensate, the vertical component of lift is
reduced significantly and a rapid descent will ensue as
the turn progresses.
Common Errors for Level Turns
• Failure to adequately clear the area before
beginning the turn.
• Attempting to sit up straight, in relation to the
ground, during a turn, rather than maintaining
posture with the cart.
• Insufficient feel for the PPC.
• Gaining proficiency in turning in only one
direction; not practicing turns in both directions.
• Failure to coordinate the throttle with the
steering controls.
• Altitude gain/loss during the turn.
• Too great of a bank angle.
Climbs and Climbing Turns, Descents
and Descending Turns
To gain altitude, increase engine RPM. To lose al -
titude, decrease engine RPM. When a PPC enters a
climb, it changes flight path from level or descending
(with level or declined planes) to ascending with an
inclined plane. [Figure 6-7]
Straight climbs are achieved by increasing throttle
above the level flight setting and holding a straight
heading. Climbing turns require more throttle than
straight climbs.
During any descent, the pilot must clear the area be -
low and to the turning side (if applicable) before be -
ginning these maneuvers.
Figure 6-7. When a PPC stabilizes in a climb or descent, the flight path is a declined or inclined plane.
To descend, reduce throttle below the straight and
level RPM while flying straight or in a turn.
Throttle reduction is the basis for determining the
descent rate. Banking the aircraft will also increase
the descent rate. Greater bank angles result in greater
descent rates.
Gliding
A glide is a basic maneuver in which the PPC loses
altitude in a controlled descent with little or no engine
power.
The PPC glide ratio is the distance the aircraft will
travel forward in relation to the altitude it loses. For
instance, if the aircraft travels 3,000 feet forward while
descending 1,000 feet, its glide ratio is said to be 3 to
1. Wind is a major influence on the gliding distance
in relationship to the PPC movement over the ground.
With a tailwind, the PPC will glide farther, perhaps a
5 to 1 glide ratio because of the higher groundspeed.
Conversely, with a headwind or a crosswind, the air -
craft will not glide as far, perhaps a 2 to 1 glide ratio,
because of the slower groundspeed.
Typically, a PPC is designed to fly efficiently near the
best lift to drag ratio. Adding flare will normally de -
crease your speed by increasing your drag and angle
of attack, reducing your glide ratio. Do not attempt to
“stretch” a glide by applying flare and reducing the
airspeed. Attempts to stretch a glide will invariably
result in an increase in the descent rate and angle of
descent.
A stabilized power-off descent is referred to as a nor-
mal glide. The flight instructor, while demonstrating a
normal glide, should direct the pilot to note:
• sounds made by the PPC,
• no steering control is required except to
maintain intended direction, and
• feel of the powered parachute.
Wing Trim
The powered parachute is designed so there is no
pressure needed on the flight steering controls, thus,
no pulling on the trailing edge when the PPC is flying
along normally. If properly trimmed, the PPC will fly
straight with no pilot input except for slight variations
due to left-turning tendencies. If the PPC is flying out
of this basic balanced condition, one of the steer -
ing controls can be pulled down and slight pressure
applied on the side to reduce the speed of the faster
side wing with a trim lock to temporarily relieve the
pilot of constant steering input. This trim lock is a
mechanical device the pilot can set on the ground or
in flight. [Figure 6-8] It holds the pressure on the side
that needs it so the pilot does not have to continually
apply pressure. Due to the inefficiency of increased
drag, the constant use of trim locks should not be a
replacement for a well set up and properly trimmed
wing. Most PPCs are currently not equipped with trim
locks but this will depend on the specific manufactur-
er and make/model. An improperly-trimmed PPC can
quickly produce pilot tension and fatigue, requiring
constant pressure on one of the steering bars.
Figure 6-8. The right trailing edge is pulled down slightly
using the trim system, to correct for the left-turning
tendency.