Source text. Published from the recorded source PDF for NEETS Module 10: Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines, and Antennas.
NEETS MODULE 10-Wave Propagation, Transmission Lines,
and Antennas
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2 RADIO WA VE PROPAGATION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After you finish this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
1. State what the electromagnetic field is and what components make up the
electromagnetic field.
2. State the difference between the induction field and the radiation field.
3. State what radio waves are.
4. List the components of a radio wave and define the terms cycle, frequency,
harmonics, period, wavelength, and velocity as applied to radio wave propagation.
5. Compute the wavelength of radio waves.
6. State how radio waves are polarized, vertically and horizontally.
7. State what reflection, refraction, and diffraction are as applied to radio waves.
8. State what influence the Earth's atmosphere has on radio waves and list the
different layers of the Earth's atmosphere.
9. Identify a ground wave, a sky wave, and state the effects of the ionosphere on the
sky wave.
10. Identify the structure of the ionosphere.
11. Define density of layer, frequency, angle of incidence, skip distance, and skip
zone.
12. Describe propagation paths.
13. Describe fading, multipath fading, and selective fading. Describe propagation
paths.
14. State how transmission losses affect radio wave propagation.
15. State how electromagnetic interference, man-made/natural interference, and
ionospheric disturbances affect radio wave propagation. State how transmission
losses affect radio wave propagation.
16. Identify variations in the ionosphere.
17. Identify the maximum, optimum, and lowest usable frequencies of radio waves.
18. State what temperature inversion is, how frequency predictions are made, and
how weather affects frequency.
19. State what tropospheric scatter is and how it affects radio wave propagation.
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2.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC FIELDS
The way energy is propagated into free space is a source of great dispute among people
concerned with it. Although many theories have been proposed, the following theory
adequately explains the phenomena and has been widely accepted. There are two basic
fields associated with every antenna; an INDUCTION FIELD and a RADIATION
FIELD. The field associated with the energy stored in the antenna is the induction field.
This field is said to provide no part in the transmission of electromagnetic energy through
free space. However, without the presence of the induction field, there would be no
energy radiated.
2.1.1 Induction Field
Figure 2-1, a low-frequency generator connected to an antenna, will help you understand
how the induction field is produced. Let's follow the generator through one cycle of
operation.
Figure 2-1 Induction field about
an antenna
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Initially, you can consider that the generator output is zero and that no fields exist about
the antenna, as shown in view A. Now assume that the generator produces a slight
potential and has the instantaneous polarity shown in view B. Because of this slight
potential, the antenna capacitance acts as a short, allowing a large flow of current (I)
through the antenna in the direction shown. This current flow, in turn, produces a large
magnetic field about the antenna. Since the flow of current at each end of the antenna is
minimum, the corresponding magnetic fields at each end of the antenna are also
minimum. As time passes, charges, which oppose antenna current and produce an
electrostatic field (E field), collect at each end of the antenna. Eventually, the antenna
capacitance becomes fully charged and stops current flow through the antenna. Under
this condition, the electrostatic field is maximum, and the magnetic field (H field) is fully
collapsed, as shown in view C.
As the generator potential decreases back to zero, the potential of the antenna begins to
discharge. During the discharging process, the electrostatic field collapses and the
direction of current flow reverses, as shown in view D. When the current again begins to
flow, an associated magnetic field is generated. Eventually, the electrostatic field
completely collapses, the generator potential reverses, and current is maximum, as shown
in view E. As charges collect at each end of the antenna, an electrostatic field is produced
and current flow decreases. This causes the magnetic field to begin collapsing. The
collapsing magnetic field produces more current flow, a greater accumulation of charge,
and a greater electrostatic field. The antenna gradually reaches the condition shown in
view F, where current is zero and the collected charges are maximum.
As the generator potential again decreases toward zero, the antenna begins to discharge
and the electrostatic field begins to collapse. When the generator potential reaches zero,
discharge current is maximum and the associated magnetic field is maximum. A brief
time later, generator potential reverses, and the condition shown in view B recurs.
NOTE: The electric field (E field) and the electrostatic field (E field) are the same. They
will be used interchangeably throughout this text.
The graph shown in figure 2-2 shows the relationship between the magnetic (H) field and
the electric (E) field plotted against time. Note that the two fields are 90 degrees out of
phase with each other. If you compare the graph in figure 2-2 with figure 2-1, you will
notice that the two fields around the antenna are displaced 90 degrees from each other in
space. (The H field exists in a plane perpendicular to the antenna. The E field exists in a
plane parallel with the antenna, as shown in figure 2-1.)
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All the energy supplied to the induction field is returned to the antenna by the collapsing
E and H fields. No energy from the induction field is radiated from the antenna.
Therefore, the induction field is considered a local field and plays no part in the
transmission of electromagnetic energy. The induction field represents only the stored
energy in the antenna and is responsible only for the resonant effects that the antenna
reflects to the generator.
2.1.2 Radiation Fields
The E and H fields that are set up in the transfer of energy through space are known
collectively as the radiation field. This radiation field is responsible for electromagnetic
radiation from the antenna. The radiation field decreases as the distance from the antenna
is increased. Because the decrease is linear, the radiation field reaches great distances
from the antenna.
Figure 2-2 Phase relationship of induction field components
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Let's look at a half-wave antenna to illustrate how this radiation actually takes place.
Simply stated, a half-wave antenna is one that has an electrical length equal to half the
wavelength of the signal being transmitted. Assume, for example, that a transmitter is
operating at 30 megahertz. If a half-wave antenna is used with the transmitter, the
antenna's electrical length would have to be at least 16 feet long. (The formula used to
compute the electrical length of an antenna will be explained in chapter 4.) When power
is delivered to the half-wave antenna, both an induction field and a radiation field are set
up by the fluctuating energy. At the antenna, the intensities of these fields are
proportional to the amount of power delivered to the antenna from a source such as a
transmitter. At a short distance from the antenna and beyond, only the radiation field
exists. This radiation field is made up of an electric component and a magnetic
component at right angles to each other in space and varying together in intensity.
With a high-frequency generator (a transmitter) connected to the antenna, the induction
field is produced as described in the previous section. However, the generator potential
reverses before the electrostatic field has had time to collapse completely. The reversed
generator potential neutralizes the remaining antenna charges, leaving a resultant E field
in space.
Figure 2-3 is a simple picture of an E field detaching itself from an antenna. (The H field
will not be considered, although it is present.) In view A the voltage is maximum and the
electric field has maximum intensity. The lines of force begin at the end of the antenna
that is positively charged and extend to the end of the antenna that is negatively charged.
Note that the outer E lines are stretched away from the inner lines. This is because of the
repelling force that takes place between lines of force in the same direction. As the
voltage drops (view B), the separated charges come together, and the ends of the lines
move toward the center of the antenna. But, since lines of force in the same direction
repel each other, the centers of the lines are still being held out.
Figure 2-3 Radiation from an antenna
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As the voltage approaches zero (view B), some of the lines collapse back into the
antenna. At the same time, the ends of other lines begin to come together to form a
complete loop. Notice the direction of these lines of force next to the antenna in view C.
At this point the voltage on the antenna is zero. As the charge starts to build up in the
opposite direction (view D), electric lines of force again begin at the positive end of the
antenna and stretch to the negative end of the antenna. These lines of force, being in the
same direction as the sides of the closed loops next to the antenna, repel the closed loops
and force them out into space at the speed of light. As these loops travel through space,
they generate a magnetic field in phase with them.
Since each successive E field is generated with a polarity that is opposite the preceding E
field (that is, the lines of force are opposite), an oscillating electric field is produced
along the path of travel. When an electric field oscillates, a magnetic field having an
intensity that varies directly with that of the E field is produced. The variations in
magnetic field intensity, in turn, produce another E field. Thus, the two varying fields
sustain each other, resulting in electromagnetic wave propagation.
During this radiation process, the E and H fields are in phase in time but physically
displaced 90 degrees in space. Thus, the varying magnetic field produces a varying
electric field; and the varying electric field, in turn, sustains the varying magnetic field.
Each field supports the other, and neither can be propagated by itself. Figure 2-4 shows a
comparison between the induction field and the radiation field.
Figure 2-4 E and H components of
induction and radiation fields
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Q1. Which two composite fields (composed of E and H fields) are associated with every
antenna?
Q2. What composite field (composed of E and H fields) is found stored in the antenna?
Q3. What composite field (composed of E and H fields) is propagated into free space?
2.2 RADIO WAVES
An energy wave generated by a transmitter is called a RADIO WAVE. The radio wave
radiated into space by the transmitting antenna is a very complex form of energy
containing both electric and magnetic fields. Because of this combination of fields, radio
waves are also referred to as ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION.
This discussion will explain the Earth's atmosphere and its effect on radio waves. All the
principles of wave motion that were discussed in chapter 1 also apply to radio waves.
NOTE: The term radio wave is not limited to communications equipment alone. The
term applies to all equipment that generate signals in the form of electromagnetic energy.
2.2.1 Components of Radio Waves
The basic shape of the wave generated by a transmitter is that of a sine wave. The wave
radiated out into space, however, may or may not retain the characteristics of the sine
wave.
A sine wave can be one cycle or many cycles. The number of cycles of a sine wave that
are completed in 1 second is known as the frequency of the sine wave. For example, 60
cycles of ordinary house current occur each second, so house current is said to have a
frequency of 60 cycles per second or 60 hertz.
The frequencies falling between 3000 hertz (3 kHz) and 300,000,000,000 hertz (300
GHz) are called RADIO FREQUENCIES (abbreviated rf) since they are commonly used
in radio communications. This part of the radio frequency spectrum is divided into bands,
each band being 10 times higher in frequency than the one immediately below it. This
arrangement serves as a convenient way to remember the range of each band. The rf
bands are shown in table 2-1. The usable radio-frequency range is roughly 10 kilohertz to
100 gigahertz.
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DESCRIPTION ABBREVIATION FREQUENCY
Very low VLF 3 to 30 KHz
Low LF 30 to 300 KHz
Medium MF 300 to 3000 KHz
High HF 3 to 30 MHz
Very high VHF 30 to 300 MHz
Ultrahigh UHF 300 to 3000 MHz
Super high SHF 3 to 30 GHz
Extremely high EHF 30 to 300 GHz
Table 2-1 Radio Frequency Bands
Any frequency that is a whole number multiple of a smaller basic frequency is known as
a HARMONIC of that basic frequency. The basic frequency itself is called the first
harmonic or, more commonly, the FUNDAMENTAL FREQUENCY. A frequency that is
twice as great as the fundamental frequency is called the second harmonic; a frequency
three times as great is the third harmonic; and so on. For example:
First harmonic (Fundamental frequency) 3000 kHz
Second harmonic 6000 kHz
Third harmonic 9000 kHz
The PERIOD of a radio wave is simply the amount of time required for the completion of
one full cycle. If a sine wave has a frequency of 2 hertz, each cycle has a duration, or
period, of one-half second. If the frequency is 10 hertz, the period of each cycle is one-
tenth of a second. Since the frequency of a radio wave is the number of cycles that are
completed in one second, you should be able to see that as the frequency of a radio wave
increases, its period decreases.
A wavelength is the space occupied by one full cycle of a radio wave at any given instant.
Wavelengths are expressed in meters (1 meter is equal to 3.28 feet). You need to have a
good understanding of frequency and wavelength to be able to select the proper
antenna(s) for use in successful communications. The relationship between frequency,
wavelength, and antennas will be discussed in chapter 4 of this module.
The velocity (or speed) of a radio wave radiated into free space by a transmitting antenna
is equal to the speed of light—186,000 miles per second or 300,000,000 meters per
second. Because of various factors, such as barometric pressure, humidity, molecular
content, etc., radio waves travel inside the Earth's atmosphere at a speed slightly less than
the speed of light. Normally, in discussions of the velocity of radio waves, the velocity
referred to is the speed at which radio waves travel in free space.
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The frequency of a radio wave has nothing to do with its velocity. A 5-megahertz wave
travels through space at the same velocity as a 10-megahertz wave. However, the velocity
of radio waves is an important factor in making wavelength-to-frequency conversions,
the subject of our next discussion.
Q4. What is the term used to describe the basic frequency of a radio wave?
Q5. What is the term used to describe a whole number multiple of the basic frequency of
a radio wave?
2.2.2 Wavelength-To-Frequency Conversions
Radio waves are often referred to by their wavelength in meters rather than by frequency.
For example, most people have heard commercial radio stations make announcements
similar to the following: "Station WXYZ operating on 240 meters..." To tune receiving
equipment that is calibrated by frequency to such a station, you must first convert the
designated wavelength to its equivalent frequency.
As discussed earlier, a radio wave travels 300,000,000 meters a second (speed of light);
therefore, a radio wave of 1 hertz would have traveled a distance (or wavelength) of
300,000,000 meters. Obviously then, if the frequency of the wave is increased to 2 hertz,
the wavelength will be cut in half to 150,000,000 meters. This illustrates the principle
that the HIGHER THE FREQUENCY, the SHORTER THE WAVELENGTH.
Wavelength-to-frequency conversions of radio waves are really quite simple because
wavelength and frequency are reciprocals: Either one divided into the velocity of a radio
wave yields the other. Remember, the formula for wavelength is:
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The wavelength in meters divided into 300,000,000 yields the frequency of a radio wave
in hertz. Likewise, the wavelength divided into 300,000 yields the frequency of a radio
wave in kilohertz, and the wavelength divided into 300 yields the frequency in
megahertz.
Now, let us apply the formula to determine the frequency to which the receiving
equipment must be tuned to receive station WXYZ operating on 240 meters. Radio wave
frequencies are normally expressed in kilohertz or megahertz.
To find the frequency in hertz, use the formula:
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To find the frequency in kilohertz, use the formula:
To find the frequency in megahertz, use the formula:
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Q6. It is known that WWV operates on a frequency of 10 megahertz. What is the
wavelength of WWV?
Q7. A station is known to operate at 60-meters. What is the frequency of the unknown
station?
2.2.3 Polarization
For maximum absorption of energy from the electromagnetic fields, the receiving
antenna must be located in the plane of polarization. This places the conductor of the
antenna at right angles to the magnetic lines of force moving through the antenna and
parallel to the electric lines, causing maximum induction.
Normally, the plane of polarization of a radio wave is the plane in which the E field
propagates with respect to the Earth. If the E field component of the radiated wave travels
in a plane perpendicular to the Earth's surface (vertical), the radiation is said to be
VERTICALLY POLARIZED, as shown in figure 2-5, view A. If the E field propagates
in a plane parallel to the Earth's surface (horizontal), the radiation is said to be
HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED, as shown in view B.
Figure 2-5 Vertical and horizontal polarization
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The position of the antenna in space is important because it affects the polarization of the
electromagnetic wave. When the transmitting antenna is close to the ground, vertically
polarized waves cause a greater signal strength along the Earth's surface. On the other
hand, antennas high above the ground should be horizontally polarized to get the greatest
possible signal strength to the Earth's surface.
The radiated energy from an antenna is in the form of an expanding sphere. Any small
section of this sphere is perpendicular to the direction the energy travels and is called a
WAVEFRONT. All energy on a wavefront is in phase. Usually all points on the
wavefront are at equal distances from the antenna. The farther the wavefront is from the
antenna, the less spherical the wave appears. At a considerable distance the wavefront
can be considered as a plane surface at a right angle to the direction of propagation.
If you know the directions of the E and H components, you can use the "right-hand rule"
(see figure 2-6) to determine the direction of wave propagation. This rule states that if the
thumb, forefinger, and middle finger of the right hand are extended so they are mutually
perpendicular, the middle finger will point in the direction of wave propagation if the
thumb points in the direction of the E field and the forefinger points in the direction of
the H field. Since both the E and H fields reverse directions simultaneously, propagation
of a particular wavefront is always in the same direction (away from the antenna).
Figure 2-6 Right-hand rule for propagation
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Q8. If a transmitting antenna is placed close to the ground, how should the antenna be
polarized to give the greatest signal strength?
Q9. In the right-hand rule for propagation, the thumb points in the direction of the E field
and the forefinger points in the direction of the H field. In what direction does the middle
finger point?
2.2.4 Atmospheric Propagation
Within the atmosphere, radio waves can be reflected, refracted, and diffracted like light
and heat waves.
2.2.4.1 Reflection
Radio waves may be reflected from various substances or objects they meet during travel
between the transmitting and receiving sites. The amount of reflection depends on the
reflecting material. Smooth metal surfaces of good electrical conductivity are efficient
reflectors of radio waves. The surface of the Earth itself is a fairly good reflector. The
radio wave is not reflected from a single point on the reflector but rather from an area on
its surface. The size of the area required for reflection to take place depends on the
wavelength of the radio wave and the angle at which the wave strikes the reflecting
substance.
When radio waves are reflected from flat surfaces, a phase shift in the alternations of the
wave occurs. Figure 2-7 shows two radio waves being reflected from the Earth's surface.
Notice that the positive and negative alternations of radio waves (A) and (B) are in phase
with each other in their paths toward the Earth's surface. After reflection takes place,
however, the waves are approximately 180 degrees out of phase from their initial
relationship. The amount of phase shift that occurs is not constant.
It depends on the polarization of the wave and the angle at which the wave strikes the
reflecting surface. Radio waves that keep their phase relationships after reflection
normally produce a stronger signal at the receiving site. Those that are received out of
phase produce a weak or fading signal. The shifting in the phase relationships of reflected
radio waves is one of the major reasons for fading. Fading will be discussed in more
detail later in this chapter.
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2.2.4.2 Refraction
Another phenomenon common to most radio waves is the bending of the waves as they
move from one medium into another in which the velocity of propagation is different.
This bending of the waves is called refraction. For example, suppose you are driving
down a smoothly paved road at a constant speed and suddenly one wheel goes off onto
the soft shoulder. The car tends to veer off to one side. The change of medium, from hard
surface to soft shoulder, causes a change in speed or velocity. The tendency is for the car
to change direction. This same principle applies to radio waves as changes occur in the
medium through which they are passing. As an example, the radio wave shown in figure
2-8 is traveling through the Earth's atmosphere at a constant speed. As the wave enters
the dense layer of electrically charged ions, the part of the wave that enters the new
medium first travels faster than the parts of the wave that have not yet entered the new
medium. This abrupt increase in velocity of the upper part of the wave causes the wave to
bend back toward the Earth. This bending, or change of direction, is always toward the
medium that has the lower velocity of propagation.
Figure 2-7 Phase shift of reflected radio waves
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Radio waves passing through the atmosphere are affected by certain factors, such as
temperature, pressure, humidity, and density. These factors can cause the radio waves to
be refracted. This effect will be discussed in greater detail later in this chapter.
2.2.4.3 Diffraction
A radio wave that meets an obstacle has a natural tendency to bend around the obstacle as
illustrated in figure 2-9. The bending, called diffraction, results in a change of direction
of part of the wave energy from the normal line-of-sight path. This change makes it
possible to receive energy around the edges of an obstacle as shown in view A or at some
distances below the highest point of an obstruction, as shown in view B. Although
diffracted rf energy usually is weak, it can still be detected by a suitable receiver. The
principal effect of diffraction extends the radio range beyond the visible horizon. In
certain cases, by using high power and very low frequencies, radio waves can be made to
encircle the Earth by diffraction.
Figure 2-8 Radio wave refraction
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Q10. What is one of the major reasons for the fading of radio waves which have been
reflected from a surface?
2.3 THE EFFECT OF THE EARTH'S ATMOSPHERE ON RADIO WAVES
This discussion of electromagnetic wave propagation is concerned mainly with the
properties and effects of the medium located between the transmitting antenna and the
receiving antenna. While radio waves traveling in free space have little outside influence
affecting them, radio waves traveling within the Earth's atmosphere are affected by
varying conditions. The influence exerted on radio waves by the Earth's atmosphere adds
many new factors to complicate what at first seems to be a relatively simple problem.
These complications are because of a lack of uniformity within the Earth's atmosphere.
Atmospheric conditions vary with changes in height, geographical location, and even
with changes in time (day, night, season, year). A knowledge of the composition of the
Earth's atmosphere is extremely important for understanding wave propagation.
The Earth's atmosphere is divided into three separate regions, or layers. They are the
TROPOSPHERE, the STRATOSPHERE, and the IONOSPHERE. The layers of the
atmosphere are illustrated in figure 2-10.
Figure 2-9 Diffraction around an object
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2.3.1 Troposphere
The troposphere is the portion of the Earth's atmosphere that extends from the surface of
the Earth to a height of about 3.7 miles (6 km) at the North Pole or the South Pole and
11.2 miles (18 km) at the equator. Virtually all weather phenomena take place in the
troposphere. The temperature in this region decreases rapidly with altitude, clouds form,
and there may be much turbulence because of variations in temperature, density, and
pressure. These conditions have a great effect on the propagation of radio waves, which
will be explained later in this chapter.
Figure 2-10 Layers of the earth's atmosphere
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2.3.2 Stratosphere
The stratosphere is located between the troposphere and the ionosphere. The temperature
throughout this region is considered to be almost constant and there is little water vapor
present. The stratosphere has relatively little effect on radio waves because it is a
relatively calm region with little or no temperature changes.
2.3.3 Ionosphere
The ionosphere extends upward from about 31.1 miles (50 km) to a height of about 250
miles (402 km). It contains four cloud-like layers of electrically charged ions, which
enable radio waves to be propagated to great distances around the Earth. This is the most
important region of the atmosphere for long distance point-to-point communications.
This region will be discussed in detail a little later in this chapter.
Q11. What are the three layers of the atmosphere?
Q12. Which layer of the atmosphere has relatively little effect on radio waves?
2.4 RADIO WAVE TRANSMISSION
There are two principal ways in which electromagnetic (radio) energy travels from a
transmitting antenna to a receiving antenna. One way is by GROUND WAVES and the
other is by SKY WAVES. Ground waves are radio waves that travel near the surface of
the Earth (surface and space waves). Sky waves are radio waves that are reflected back to
Earth from the ionosphere. (See figure 2-11.)
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2.4.1 Ground Waves
The ground wave is actually composed of two separate component waves. These are
known as the SURFACE WAVE and the SPACE WAVE (fig. 2-11). The determining
factor in whether a ground wave component is classified as a space wave or a surface
wave is simple. A surface wave travels along the surface of the Earth. A space wave
travels over the surface.
SURFACE WAVE.—The surface wave reaches the receiving site by traveling along the
surface of the ground as shown in figure 2-12. A surface wave can follow the contours of
the Earth because of the process of diffraction. When a surface wave meets an object and
the dimensions of the object do not exceed its wavelength, the wave tends to curve or
bend around the object. The smaller the object, the more pronounced the diffractive
action will be.
Figure 2-11 Ground waves and sky waves
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As a surface wave passes over the ground, the wave induces a voltage in the Earth. The
induced voltage takes energy away from the surface wave, thereby weakening, or
attenuating, the wave as it moves away from the transmitting antenna. To reduce the
attenuation, the amount of induced voltage must be reduced. This is done by using
vertically polarized waves that minimize the extent to which the electric field of the wave
is in contact with the Earth. When a surface wave is horizontally polarized, the electric
field of the wave is parallel with the surface of the Earth and, therefore, is constantly in
contact with it. The wave is then completely attenuated within a short distance from the
transmitting site. On the other hand, when the surface wave is vertically polarized, the
electric field is vertical to the Earth and merely dips into and out of the Earth's surface.
For this reason, vertical polarization is vastly superior to horizontal polarization for
surface wave propagation.
The attenuation that a surface wave undergoes because of induced voltage also depends
on the electrical properties of the terrain over which the wave travels. The best type of
surface is one that has good electrical conductivity. The better the conductivity, the less
the attenuation. Table 2-2 gives the relative conductivity of various surfaces of the Earth.
Figure 2-12 Surface wave propagation
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SURFACE RELATIVE CONDUCTIVITY
Sea water Good
Flat, loamy soil Fair
Large bodies of fresh water Fair
Rocky terrain Poor
Desert Poor
Jungle Unusable
Table 2-2 Surface Conductivity
Another major factor in the attenuation of surface waves is frequency. Recall from earlier
discussions on wavelength that the higher the frequency of a radio wave, the shorter its
wavelength will be. These high frequencies, with their shorter wavelengths, are not
normally diffracted but are absorbed by the Earth at points relatively close to the
transmitting site. You can assume, therefore, that as the frequency of a surface wave is
increased, the more rapidly the surface wave will be absorbed, or attenuated, by the
Earth. Because of this loss by attenuation, the surface wave is impractical for long
distance transmissions at frequencies above 2 megahertz. On the other hand, when the
frequency of a surface wave is low enough to have a very long wavelength, the Earth
appears to be very small, and diffraction is sufficient for propagation well beyond the
horizon. In fact, by lowering the transmitting frequency into the very low frequency (vlf)
range and using very high-powered transmitters, the surface wave can be propagated
great distances. The Navy's extremely high-powered vlf transmitters are actually capable
of transmitting surface wave signals around the Earth and can provide coverage to naval
units operating anywhere at sea.
SPACE WAVE.—The space wave follows two distinct paths from the transmitting
antenna to the receiving antenna—one through the air directly to the receiving antenna,
the other reflected from the ground to the receiving antenna. This is illustrated in figure
2-13. The primary path of the space wave is directly from the transmitting antenna to the
receiving antenna. So, the receiving antenna must be located within the radio horizon of
the transmitting antenna. Because space waves are refracted slightly, even when
propagated through the troposphere, the radio horizon is actually about one-third farther
than the line-of-sight or natural horizon.
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Although space waves suffer little ground attenuation, they nevertheless are susceptible
to fading. This is because space waves actually follow two paths of different lengths
(direct path and ground reflected path) to the receiving site and, therefore, may arrive in
or out of phase. If these two component waves are received in phase, the result is a
reinforced or stronger signal. Likewise, if they are received out of phase, they tend to
cancel one another, which results in a weak or fading signal.
Q13. What is the determining factor in classifying whether a radio wave is a ground
wave or a space wave?
Q14. What is the best type of surface or terrain to use for radio wave transmission?
Q15. What is the primary difference between the radio horizon and the natural horizon?
Q16. What three factors must be considered in the transmission of a surface wave to
reduce attenuation?
Figure 2-13 Space wave propagation
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SKY WAVE.— The sky wave, often called the ionospheric wave, is radiated in an
upward direction and returned to Earth at some distant location because of refraction
from the ionosphere. This form of propagation is relatively unaffected by the Earth's
surface and can propagate signals over great distances. Usually the high frequency (hf)
band is used for sky wave propagation. The following in-depth study of the ionosphere
and its effect on sky waves will help you to better understand the nature of sky wave
propagation.
2.5 STRUCTURE OF THE IONOSPHERE
As we stated earlier, the ionosphere is the region of the atmosphere that extends from
about 30 miles above the surface of the Earth to about 250 miles. It is appropriately
named the ionosphere because it consists of several layers of electrically charged gas
atoms called ions. The ions are formed by a process called ionization.
2.5.1 Ionization
Ionization occurs when high energy ultraviolet light waves from the sun enter the
ionospheric region of the atmosphere, strike a gas atom, and literally knock an electron
free from its parent atom. A normal atom is electrically neutral since it contains both a
positive proton in its nucleus and a negative orbiting electron. When the negative electron
is knocked free from the atom, the atom becomes positively charged (called a positive
ion) and remains in space along with the free electron, which is negatively charged. This
process of upsetting electrical neutrality is known as IONIZATION.
The free negative electrons subsequently absorb part of the ultraviolet energy, which
initially freed them from their atoms. As the ultraviolet light wave continues to produce
positive ions and negative electrons, its intensity decreases because of the absorption of
energy by the free electrons, and an ionized layer is formed. The rate at which ionization
occurs depends on the density of atoms in the atmosphere and the intensity of the
ultraviolet light wave, which varies with the activity of the sun.
Since the atmosphere is bombarded by ultraviolet light waves of different frequencies,
several ionized layers are formed at different altitudes. Lower frequency ultraviolet
waves penetrate the atmosphere the least; therefore, they produce ionized layers at the
higher altitudes. Conversely, ultraviolet waves of higher frequencies penetrate deeper and
produce layers at the lower altitudes.
An important factor in determining the density of ionized layers is the elevation angle of
the sun, which changes frequently. For this reason, the height and thickness of the ionized
layers vary, depending on the time of day and even the season of the year.
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2.5.2 Recombination
Recall that the process of ionization involves ultraviolet light waves knocking electrons
free from their atoms. A reverse process called RECOMBINATION occurs when the free
electrons and positive ions collide with each other. Since these collisions are inevitable,
the positive ions return to their original neutral atom state.
The recombination process also depends on the time of day. Between the hours of early
morning and late afternoon, the rate of ionization exceeds the rate of recombination.
During this period, the ionized layers reach their greatest density and exert maximum
influence on radio waves. During the late afternoon and early evening hours, however,
the rate of recombination exceeds the rate of ionization, and the density of the ionized
layers begins to decrease. Throughout the night, density continues to decrease, reaching a
low point just before sunrise.
2.5.3 Four Distinct Layers
The ionosphere is composed of three layers designated D, E, and F, from lowest level to
highest level as shown in figure 2-14. The F layer is further divided into two layers
designated F1 (the lower layer) and F2 (the higher layer). The presence or absence of
these layers in the ionosphere and their height above the Earth varies with the position of
the sun. At high noon, radiation in the ionosphere directly above a given point is greatest.
At night it is minimum. When the radiation is removed, many of the particles that were
ionized recombine. The time interval between these conditions finds the position and
number of the ionized layers within the ionosphere changing. Since the position of the
sun varies daily, monthly, and yearly, with respect to a specified point on Earth, the exact
position and number of layers present are extremely difficult to determine. However, the
following general statements can be made:
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a. The D layer ranges from about 30 to 55 miles. Ionization in the D layer is low because
it is the lowest region of the ionosphere. This layer has the ability to refract signals of low
frequencies. High frequencies pass right through it and are attenuated. After sunset, the D
layer disappears because of the rapid recombination of ions.
b. The E layer limits are from about 55 to 90 miles. This layer is also known as the
Kennelly- Heaviside layer, because these two men were the first to propose its existence.
The rate of ionic recombination in this layer is rather rapid after sunset and the layer is
almost gone by midnight. This layer has the ability to refract signals as high as 20
megahertz. For this reason, it is valuable for communications in ranges up to about 1500
miles.
c. The F layer exists from about 90 to 240 miles. During the daylight hours, the F layer
separates into two layers, the F1 and F2 layers. The ionization level in these layers is
quite high and varies widely during the day. At noon, this portion of the atmosphere is
closest to the sun and the degree of ionization is maximum. Since the atmosphere is
rarefied at these heights, recombination occurs slowly after sunset. Therefore, a fairly
constant ionized layer is always present. The F layers are responsible for high-frequency,
long distance transmission.
Figure 2-14 Layers of the ionosphere
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Q17. What causes ionization to occur in the ionosphere?
Q18. How are the four distinct layers of the ionosphere designated?
Q19. What is the height of the individual layers of the ionosphere?
2.6 REFRACTION IN THE IONOSPHERE
When a radio wave is transmitted into an ionized layer, refraction, or bending of the
wave, occurs. As we discussed earlier, refraction is caused by an abrupt change in the
velocity of the upper part of a radio wave as it strikes or enters a new medium. The
amount of refraction that occurs depends on three main factors: (1) the density of
ionization of the layer, (2) the frequency of the radio wave, and (3) the angle at which the
wave enters the layer.
2.6.1 Density of Layer
Figure 2-15 illustrates the relationship between radio waves and ionization density. Each
ionized layer has a central region of relatively dense ionization, which tapers off in
intensity both above and below the maximum region. As a radio wave enters a region of
INCREASING ionization, the increase in velocity of the upper part of the wave causes it
to be bent back TOWARD the Earth. While the wave is in the highly dense center portion
of the layer, however, refraction occurs more slowly because the density of ionization is
almost uniform. As the wave enters into the upper part of the layer of DECREASING
ionization, the velocity of the upper part of the wave decreases, and the wave is bent
AWAY from the Earth.
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If a wave strikes a thin, very highly ionized layer, the wave may be bent back so rapidly
that it will appear to have been reflected instead of refracted back to Earth. To reflect a
radio wave, the highly ionized layer must be approximately no thicker than one
wavelength of the radio wave. Since the ionized layers are often several miles thick,
ionospheric reflection is more likely to occur at long wavelengths (low frequencies).
Figure 2-15 Effects of ionospheric density on radio waves
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2.6.2 Frequency
For any given time, each ionospheric layer has a maximum frequency at which radio
waves can be transmitted vertically and refracted back to Earth. This frequency is known
as the CRITICAL FREQUENCY. It is a term that you will hear frequently in any
discussion of radio wave propagation. Radio waves transmitted at frequencies higher than
the critical frequency of a given layer will pass through the layer and be lost in space; but
if these same waves enter an upper layer with a higher critical frequency, they will be
refracted back to Earth. Radio waves of frequencies lower than the critical frequency will
also be refracted back to Earth unless they are absorbed or have been refracted from a
lower layer. The lower the frequency of a radio wave, the more rapidly the wave is
refracted by a given degree of ionization. Figure 2-16 shows three separate waves of
different frequencies entering an ionospheric layer at the same angle. Notice that the 5-
megahertz wave is refracted quite sharply. The 20-megahertz wave is refracted less
sharply and returned to Earth at a greater distance. The 100-megahertz wave is obviously
greater than the critical frequency for that ionized layer and, therefore, is not refracted but
is passed into space.
Figure 2-16 Frequency versus refraction and distance
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2.6.3 Angle of Incidence
The rate at which a wave of a given frequency is refracted by an ionized layer depends on
the angle at which the wave enters the layer. Figure 2-17 shows three radio waves of the
same frequency entering a layer at different angles. The angle at which wave A strikes
the layer is too nearly vertical for the wave to be refracted to Earth. As the wave enters
the layer, it is bent slightly but passes through the layer and is lost. When the wave is
reduced to an angle that is less than vertical (wave B), it strikes the layer and is refracted
back to Earth. The angle made by wave B is called the CRITICAL ANGLE for that
particular frequency. Any wave that leaves the antenna at an angle greater than the
critical angle will penetrate the ionospheric layer for that frequency and then be lost in
space. Wave C strikes the ionosphere at the smallest angle at which the wave can be
refracted and still return to Earth. At any smaller angle, the wave will be refracted but
will not return to Earth.
As the frequency of the radio wave is increased, the critical angle must be reduced for
refraction to occur. This is illustrated in figure 2-18. The 2-megahertz wave strikes the
layer at the critical angle for that frequency and is refracted back to Earth. Although the
5-megahertz wave (broken line) strikes the ionosphere at a lesser angle, it nevertheless
penetrates the layer and is lost. As the angle is lowered from the vertical, however, a
critical angle for the 5-megahertz wave is reached, and the wave is then refracted to
Earth.
Figure 2-17 Different incident angles of radio waves
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Q20. What factor determines whether a radio wave is reflected or refracted by the
ionosphere?
Q21. There is a maximum frequency at which vertically transmitted radio waves can be
refracted back to Earth. What is this maximum frequency called?
Q22. What three main factors determine the amount of refraction in the ionosphere?
Figure 2-18 Effects of frequency on the critical angle
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2.6.4 Skip Distance/Skip Zone
In figure 2-19, note the relationship between the sky wave skip distance, the skip zone,
and the ground wave coverage. The SKIP DISTANCE is the distance from the
transmitter to the point where the sky wave is first returned to Earth. The size of the skip
distance depends on the frequency of the wave, the angle of incidence, and the degree of
ionization present.
The SKIP ZONE is a zone of silence between the point where the ground wave becomes
too weak for reception and the point where the sky wave is first returned to Earth. The
size of the skip zone depends on the extent of the ground wave coverage and the skip
distance. When the ground wave coverage is great enough or the skip distance is short
enough that no zone of silence occurs, there is no skip zone.
Occasionally, the first sky wave will return to Earth within the range of the ground wave.
If the sky wave and ground wave are nearly of equal intensity, the sky wave alternately
reinforces and cancels the ground wave, causing severe fading. This is caused by the
phase difference between the two waves, a result of the longer path traveled by the sky
wave.
Figure 2-19 Relationship between skip zone, skip distance, and ground wave
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2.7 PROPAGATION PATHS
The path that a refracted wave follows to the receiver depends on the angle at which the
wave strikes the ionosphere. You should remember, however, that the rf energy radiated
by a transmitting antenna spreads out with distance. The energy therefore strikes the
ionosphere at many different angles rather than a single angle.
After the rf energy of a given frequency enters an ionospheric region, the paths that this
energy might follow are many. It may reach the receiving antenna via two or more paths
through a single layer. It may also, reach the receiving antenna over a path involving
more than one layer, by multiple hops between the ionosphere and Earth, or by any
combination of these paths.
Figure 2-20 shows how radio waves may reach a receiver via several paths through one
layer. The various angles at which rf energy strikes the layer are represented by dark lines
and designated as rays 1 through 6.
Figure 2-20 Ray paths for a fixed frequency with varying angles of incidence
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When the angle is relatively low with respect to the horizon (ray 1), there is only slight
penetration of the layer and the propagation path is long. When the angle of incidence is
increased (rays 2 and 3), the rays penetrate deeper into the layer but the range of these
rays decreases. When a certain angle is reached (ray 3), the penetration of the layer and
rate of refraction are such that the ray is first returned to Earth at a minimal distance from
the transmitter. Notice, however, that ray 3 still manages to reach the receiving site on its
second refraction (called a hop) from the ionospheric layer.
As the angle is increased still more (rays 4 and 5), the rf energy penetrates the central
area of maximum ionization of the layer. These rays are refracted rather slowly and are
eventually returned to Earth at great distances. As the angle approaches vertical incidence
(ray 6), the ray is not returned at all, but passes on through the layer.
2.8 ABSORPTION IN THE IONOSPHERE
Many factors affect a radio wave in its path between the transmitting and receiving sites.
The factor that has the greatest adverse effect on radio waves is ABSORPTION.
Absorption results in the loss of energy of a radio wave and has a pronounced effect on
both the strength of received signals and the ability to communicate over long distances.
You learned earlier in the section on ground waves that surface waves suffer most of their
absorption losses because of ground-induced voltage. Sky waves, on the other hand,
suffer most of their absorption losses because of conditions in the ionosphere. Note that
some absorption of sky waves may also occur at lower atmospheric levels because of the
presence of water and water vapor. However, this becomes important only at frequencies
above 10,000 megahertz.
Most ionospheric absorption occurs in the lower regions of the ionosphere where
ionization density is greatest. As a radio wave passes into the ionosphere, it loses some of
its energy to the free electrons and ions. If these high-energy free electrons and ions do
not collide with gas molecules of low energy, most of the energy lost by the radio wave is
reconverted into electromagnetic energy, and the wave continues to be propagated with
little change in intensity. However, if the high-energy free electrons and ions do collide
with other particles, much of this energy is lost, resulting in absorption of the energy
from the wave. Since absorption of energy depends on collision of the particles, the
greater the density of the ionized layer, the greater the probability of collisions; therefore,
the greater the absorption. The highly dense D and E layers provide the greatest
absorption of radio waves.
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Because the amount of absorption of the sky wave depends on the density of the
ionosphere, which varies with seasonal and daily conditions, it is impossible to express a
fixed relationship between distance and signal strength for ionospheric propagation.
Under certain conditions, the absorption of energy is so great that communicating over
any distance beyond the line of sight is difficult.
2.9 FADING
The most troublesome and frustrating problem in receiving radio signals is variations in
signal strength, most commonly known as FADING. There are several conditions that
can produce fading. When a radio wave is refracted by the ionosphere or reflected from
the Earth's surface, random changes in the polarization of the wave may occur. Vertically
and horizontally mounted receiving antennas are designed to receive vertically and
horizontally polarized waves, respectively. Therefore, changes in polarization cause
changes in the received signal level because of the inability of the antenna to receive
polarization changes.
Fading also results from absorption of the rf energy in the ionosphere. Absorption fading
occurs for a longer period than other types of fading, since absorption takes place slowly.
Usually, however, fading on ionospheric circuits is mainly a result of multipath
propagation.
2.9.1 Multipath Fading
MULTIPATH is simply a term used to describe the multiple paths a radio wave may
follow between transmitter and receiver. Such propagation paths include the ground
wave, ionospheric refraction, reradiation by the ionospheric layers, reflection from the
Earth's surface or from more than one ionospheric layer, etc. Figure 2-21 shows a few of
the paths that a signal can travel between two sites in a typical circuit. One path, XYZ, is
the basic ground wave. Another path, XEA, refracts the wave at the E layer and passes it
on to the receiver at A. Still another path, XFZFA, results from a greater angle of
incidence and two refractions from the F layer. At point Z, the received signal is a
combination of the ground wave and the sky wave. These two signals having traveled
different paths arrive at point Z at different times. Thus, the arriving waves may or may
not be in phase with each other. Radio waves that are received in phase reinforce each
other and produce a stronger signal at the receiving site. Conversely, those that are
received out of phase produce a weak or fading signal. Small alternations in the
transmission path may change the phase relationship of the two signals, causing periodic
fading. This condition occurs at point A. At this point, the double-hop F layer signal may
be in or out of phase with the signal arriving from the E layer.
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Multipath fading may be minimized by practices called SPACE DIVERSITY and
FREQUENCY DIVERSITY. In space diversity, two or more receiving antennas are
spaced some distance apart. Fading does not occur simultaneously at both antennas;
therefore, enough output is almost always available from one of the antennas to provide a
useful signal. In frequency diversity, two transmitters and two receivers are used, each
pair tuned to a different frequency, with the same information being transmitted
simultaneously over both frequencies. One of the two receivers will almost always
provide a useful signal.
2.9.2 Selective Fading
Fading resulting from multipath propagation is variable with frequency since each
frequency arrives at the receiving point via a different radio path. When a wide band of
frequencies is transmitted simultaneously, each frequency will vary in the amount of
fading. This variation is called SELECTIVE FADING. When selective fading occurs, all
frequencies of the transmitted signal do not retain their original phases and relative
amplitudes. This fading causes severe distortion of the signal and limits the total signal
transmitted.
Figure 2-21 Multipath transmission
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Q23. What is the skip zone of a radio wave?
Q24. Where does the greatest amount of ionospheric absorption occur in the ionosphere?
Q25. What is meant by the term "multipath"?
Q26. When a wide band of frequencies is transmitted simultaneously, each frequency will
vary in the amount of fading. What is this variable fading called?
2.10 TRANSMISSION LOSSES
All radio waves propagated over ionospheric paths undergo energy losses before arriving
at the receiving site. As we discussed earlier, absorption in the ionosphere and lower
atmospheric levels account for a large part of these energy losses. There are two other
types of losses that also significantly affect the ionospheric propagation of radio waves.
These losses are known as ground reflection loss and free space loss. The combined
effects of absorption, ground reflection loss, and free space loss account for most of the
energy losses of radio transmissions propagated by the ionosphere.
2.10.1 Ground Reflection Loss
When propagation is accomplished via multihop refraction, rf energy is lost each time the
radio wave is reflected from the Earth's surface. The amount of energy lost depends on
the frequency of the wave, the angle of incidence, ground irregularities, and the electrical
conductivity of the point of reflection.
2.10.2 Free space Loss
Normally, the major loss of energy is because of the spreading out of the wavefront as it
travels away from the transmitter. As the distance increases, the area of the wavefront
spreads out, much like the beam of a flashlight. This means the amount of energy
contained within any unit of area on the wavefront will decrease as distance increases. By
the time the energy arrives at the receiving antenna, the wavefront is so spread out that
the receiving antenna extends into only a very small fraction of the wavefront. This is
illustrated in figure 2-22.
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2.11 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI)
The transmission losses just discussed are not the only factors that interfere with
communications. An additional factor that can interfere with radio communications is the
presence of ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI). This interference can
result in annoying or impossible operating conditions. Sources of EMI are both man-
made and natural.
2.11.1 Man-Made Interference
Man-made interference may come from several sources. Some of these sources, such as
oscillators, communications transmitters, and radio transmitters, may be specifically
designed to generate radio frequency energy. Some electrical devices also generate radio
frequency energy, although they are not specifically designed for this purpose. Examples
are ignition systems, generators, motors, switches, relays, and voltage regulators. The
intensity of man-made interference may vary throughout the day and drop off to a low
level at night when many of these sources are not being used. Man-made interference
may be a critical limiting factor at radio receiving sites located near industrial areas.
Figure 2-22 Free space loss principle
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2.11.2 Natural Interference
Natural interference refers to the static that you often hear when listening to a radio. This
interference is generated by natural phenomena, such as thunderstorms, snowstorms,
cosmic sources, and the sun. The energy released by these sources is transmitted to the
receiving site in roughly the same manner as radio waves. As a result, when ionospheric
conditions are favorable for the long distance propagation of radio waves, they are
likewise favorable for the propagation of natural interference. Natural interference is very
erratic, particularly in the hf band, but generally will decrease as the operating frequency
is increased and wider bandwidths are used. There is little natural interference above 30
megahertz.
2.11.3 Control of EMI
Electromagnetic interference can be reduced or eliminated by using various suppression
techniques. The amount of EMI that is produced by a radio transmitter can be controlled
by cutting transmitting antennas to the correct frequency, limiting bandwidth, and using
electronic filtering networks and metallic shielding.
Radiated EMI during transmission can be controlled by the physical separation of the
transmitting and receiving antennas, the use of directional antennas, and limiting antenna
bandwidth.
Q27. What are the two main sources of EMI with which radio waves must compete?
Q28. Thunderstorms, snowstorms, cosmic sources, the sun, etc., are a few examples of
EMI sources. What type of EMI comes from these sources?
Q29. Motors, switches, voltage regulators, generators, etc., are a few examples of EMI
sources. What type of EMI comes from these sources?
Q30. What are three ways of controlling the amount of transmitter-generated EMI?
Q31. What are three ways of controlling radiated EMI during transmission?
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2.12 VARIATIONS IN THE IONOSPHERE
Because the existence of the ionosphere is directly related to radiations emitted from the
sun, the movement of the Earth about the sun or changes in the sun's activity will result in
variations in the ionosphere. These variations are of two general types: (1) those which
are more or less regular and occur in cycles and, therefore, can be predicted in advance
with reasonable accuracy, and (2) those which are irregular as a result of abnormal
behavior of the sun and, therefore, cannot be predicted in advance. Both regular and
irregular variations have important effects on radio wave propagation.
2.12.1 Regular Variations
The regular variations that affect the extent of ionization in the ionosphere can be divided
into four main classes: daily, seasonal, 11-year, and 27-day variations.
DAILY.—Daily variations in the ionosphere are a result of the 24- hour rotation of the
Earth about its axis. Daily variations of the different layers (fig. 2-14) are summarized as
follows:
• The D layer reflects vlf waves; is important for long range vlf communications;
refracts lf and mf waves for short range communications; absorbs hf waves; has
little effect on vhf and above; and disappears at night.
• In the E layer, ionization depends on the angle of the sun. The E layer refracts hf
waves during the day up to 20 megahertz to distances of about 1200 miles.
Ionization is greatly reduced at night.
• Structure and density of the F region depend on the time of day and the angle of
the sun. This region consists of one layer during the night and splits into two
layers during daylight hours.
• Ionization density of the F1 layer depends on the angle of the sun. Its main effect
is to absorb hf waves passing through to the F2 layer.
• The F2 layer is the most important layer for long distance hf communications. It
is a very variable layer and its height and density change with time of day, season,
and sunspot activity.
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SEASONAL.—Seasonal variations are the result of the Earth rev olving around the sun;
the relative position of the sun moves from one hemisphere to the other with changes in
seasons. Seasonal variations of the D, E, and F1 layers correspond to the highest angle of
the sun; thus the ionization density of these layers is greatest during the summer. The F2
layer, however, does not follow this pattern; its ionization is greatest in winter and least
in summer, the reverse of what might be expected. As a result, operating frequencies for
F2 layer propagation are higher in the winter than in the summer.
ELEVEN-YEAR SUN SPOT CYCLE.—One of the most notable phenomena on the
surface of the sun is the appearance and disappearance of dark, irregularly shaped areas
known as SUNSPOTS. The exact nature of sunspots is not known, but scientists believe
they are caused by violent eruptions on the sun and are characterized by unusually strong
magnetic fields. These sunspots are responsible for variations in the ionization level of
the ionosphere. Sunspots can, of course, occur unexpectedly, and the life span of
individual sunspots is variable; however, a regular cycle of sunspot activity has also been
observed. This cycle has both a minimum and maximum level of sunspot activity that
occur approximately every 11 years.
During periods of maximum sunspot activity, the ionization density of all layers
increases. Because of this, absorption in the D layer increases and the critical frequencies
for the E, F1, and F2 layers are higher. At these times, higher operating frequencies must
be used for long distance communications.
27-DAY SUNSPOT CYCLE.—The number of sunspots in existence at any one time is
continually subject to change as some disappear and new ones emerge. As the sun rotates
on its own axis, these sunspots are visible at 27-day intervals, the approximate period
required for the sun to make one complete rotation.
The 27-day sunspot cycle causes variations in the ionization density of the layers on a
day-to-day basis. The fluctuations in the F2 layer are greater than for any other layer. For
this reason, precise predictions on a day-to-day basis of the critical frequency of the F2
layer are not possible. In calculating frequencies for long-distance communications,
allowances for the fluctuations of the F2 layer must be made.
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2.12.2 Irregular Variations
Irregular variations in ionospheric conditions also have an important effect on radio wave
propagation. Because these variations are irregular and unpredictable, they can drastically
affect communications capabilities without any warning.
The more common irregular variations are sporadic E, sudden ionospheric disturbances,
and ionospheric storms.
SPORADIC E.— Irregular cloud-like patches of unusually high ionization, called
sporadic E, often form at heights near the normal E layer. Exactly what causes this
phenomenon is not known, nor can its occurrence be predicted. It is known to vary
significantly with latitude, and in the northern latitudes, it appears to be closely related to
the aurora borealis or northern lights.
At times the sporadic E is so thin that radio waves penetrate it easily and are returned to
earth by the upper layers. At other times, it extends up to several hundred miles and is
heavily ionized.
These characteristics may be either harmful or helpful to radio wave propagation. For
example, sporadic E may blank out the use of higher, more favorable ionospheric layers
or cause additional absorption of the radio wave at some frequencies. Also, it can cause
additional multipath problems and delay the arrival times of the rays of rf energy.
On the other hand, the critical frequency of the sporadic E is very high and can be greater
than double the critical frequency of the normal ionospheric layers. This condition may
permit the long distance transmission of signals at unusually high frequencies. It may also
permit short distance communications to locations that would normally be in the skip
zone.
The sporadic E can form and disappear in a short time during either the day or night.
However, it usually does not occur at the same time at all transmitting or receiving
stations.
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SUDDEN IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCES.—The most startling of the ionospheric
irregularities is known as a SUDDEN IONOSPHERIC DISTURBANCE (sid). These
disturbances may occur without warning and may prevail for any length of time, from a
few minutes to several hours. When sid occurs, long distance propagation of hf radio
waves is almost totally "blanked out." The immediate effect is that radio operators
listening on normal frequencies are inclined to believe their receivers have gone dead.
When sid has occurred, examination of the sun has revealed a bright solar eruption. All
stations lying wholly, or in part, on the sunward side of the Earth are affected. The solar
eruption produces an unusually intense burst of ultraviolet light, which is not absorbed by
the F2, F1, and E layers, but instead causes a sudden abnormal increase in the ionization
density of the D layer. As a result, frequencies above 1 or 2 megahertz are unable to
penetrate the D layer and are usually completely absorbed by the layer.
IONOSPHERIC STORMS.— Ionospheric storms are disturbances in the Earth's
magnetic field. They are associated, in a manner not fully understood, with both solar
eruptions and the 27-day intervals, thus corresponding to the rotation of the sun.
Scientists believe that ionospheric storms result from particle radiation from the sun.
Particles radiated from a solar eruption have a slower velocity than ultraviolet light waves
produced by the eruption. This would account for the 18-hour or so time difference
between a sid and an ionospheric storm. An ionospheric storm that is associated with
sunspot activity may begin anytime from 2 days before an active sunspot crosses the
central meridian of the sun until four days after it passes the central meridian. At times,
however, active sunspots have crossed the central region of the sun without any
ionospheric storms occurring. Conversely, ionospheric storms have occurred when there
were no visible spots on the sun and no preceding sid. As you can see, some correlation
between ionospheric storms, sid, and sunspot activity is possible, but there are no hard
and fast rules. Ionospheric storms can occur suddenly without warning.
The most prominent effects of ionospheric storms are a turbulent ionosphere and very
erratic sky wave propagation. Critical frequencies are lower than normal, particularly for
the F2 layer. Ionospheric storms affect the higher F2 layer first, reducing its ion density.
Lower layers are not appreciably affected by the storms unless the disturbance is great.
The practical effect of ionospheric storms is that the range of frequencies that can be used
for communications on a given circuit is much smaller than normal, and communications
are possible only at the lower working frequencies.
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Q32. What are the two general types of variations in the ionosphere?
Q33. What is the main difference between these two types of variations?
Q34. What are the four main classes of regular variation which affect the extent of
ionization in the ionosphere?
Q35. What are the three more common types of irregular variations in the ionosphere?
2.12.3 Frequency Selection Considerations
Up to this point, we have covered various factors that control the propagation of radio
waves through the ionosphere, such as the structure of the ionosphere, the incidence
angle of radio waves, operating frequencies, etc. There is a very good reason for studying
radio wave propagation. You must have a thorough knowledge of radio wave propagation
to exercise good judgment when you select transmitting and receiving antennas and
operating frequencies. Selection of a suitable operating frequency (within the bounds of
frequency allocations and availability) is of prime importance in maintaining reliable
communications.
For successful communications between any two specified locations at any given time of
the day, there is a maximum frequency, a lowest frequency, and an optimum frequency
that can be used.
2.12.3.1 Maximum Usable Frequency
As we discussed earlier, the higher the frequency of a radio wave, the lower the rate of
refraction by an ionized layer. Therefore, for a given angle of incidence and time of day,
there is a maximum frequency that can be used for communications between two given
locations. This frequency is known as the MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY (muf).
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Waves at frequencies above the muf are normally refracted so slowly that they return to
Earth beyond the desired location, or pass on through the ionosphere and are lost. You
should understand, however, that use of an established muf certainly does not guarantee
successful communications between a transmitting site and a receiving site. Variations in
the ionosphere may occur at any time and consequently raise or lower the predetermined
muf. This is particularly true for radio waves being refracted by the highly variable F2
layer.
The muf is highest around noon when ultraviolet light waves from the sun are the most
intense. It then drops rather sharply as recombination begins to take place.
2.12.3.2 Lowest Usable Frequency
As there is a maximum operating frequency that can be used for communications
between two points, there is also a minimum operating frequency. This is known as the
LOWEST USABLE FREQUENCY (luf).
As the frequency of a radio wave is lowered, the rate of refraction increases. So a wave
whose frequency is below the established luf is refracted back to Earth at a shorter
distance than desired, as shown in figure 2-23.
Figure 2-23 Refraction of frequency below the lowest usable frequency (luf)
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The transmission path that results from the rate of refraction is not the only factor that
determines the luf. As a frequency is lowered, absorption of the radio wave increases. A
wave whose frequency is too low is absorbed to such an extent that it is too weak for
reception. Likewise, atmospheric noise is greater at lower frequencies; thus, a low-
frequency radio wave may have an unacceptable signal-to-noise ratio.
For a given angle of incidence and set of ionospheric conditions, the luf for successful
communications between two locations depends on the refraction properties of the
ionosphere, absorption considerations, and the amount of atmospheric noise present.
2.12.3.3 Optimum Working Frequency
Neither the muf nor the luf is a practical operating frequency. While radio waves at the
luf can be refracted back to Earth at the desired location, the signal-to-noise ratio is still
much lower than at the higher frequencies, and the probability of multipath propagation is
much greater. Operating at or near the muf can result in frequent signal fading and
dropouts when ionospheric variations alter the length of the transmission path.
The most practical operating frequency is one that you can rely on with the least amount
of problems. It should be high enough to avoid the problems of multipath, absorption,
and noise encountered at the lower frequencies; but not so high as to result in the adverse
effects of rapid change s in the ionosphere.
A frequency that meets the above criteria has been established and is known as the
OPTIMUM WORKING FREQUENCY. It is abbreviated "fot" from the initial letters of
the French words for optimum working frequency, "frequence optimum de travail." The
fot is roughly about 85 percent of the muf but the actual percentage varies and may be
either considerably more or less than 85 percent.
Q36. What do the letters muf, luf, and fot stand for?
Q37. When is muf at its highest and why?
Q38. What happens to the radio wave if the luf is too low?
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Q39. What are some disadvantages of operating transmitters at or near the luf?
Q40. What are some disadvantages of operating a transmitter at or near the muf?
Q41. What is fot?
2.13 WEATHER VERSUS PROPAGATION
Weather is an additional factor that affects the propagation of radio waves. In this section,
we will explain how and to what extent the various weather phenomena affect wave
propagation.
Wind, air temperature, and water content of the atmosphere can combine in many ways.
Certain combinations can cause radio signals to be heard hundreds of miles beyond the
ordinary range of radio communications. Conversely, a different combination of factors
can cause such attenuation of the signal that it may not be heard even over a normally
satisfactory path. Unfortunately, there are no hard and fast rules on the effects of weather
on radio transmissions since the weather is extremely complex and subject to frequent
change. We will, therefore, limit our discussion on the effects of weather on radio waves
to general terms.
2.13.1 Precipitation Attenuation
Calculating the effect of weather on radio wave propagation would be comparatively
simple if there were no water or water vapor in the atmosphere. However, some form of
water (vapor, liquid, or solid) is always present and must be considered in all
calculations. Before we begin discussing the specific effects that individual forms of
precipitation (rain, snow, fog) have on radio waves, you should understand that
attenuation because of precipitation is generally proportionate to the frequency and
wavelength of the radio wave. For example, rain has a pronounced effect on waves at
microwave frequencies. However, rain hardly affects waves with long wavelengths (hf
range and below). You can assume, then, that as the wavelength becomes shorter with
increases in frequency, precipitation has an increasingly important attenuation effect on
radio waves. Conversely, you can assume that as the wavelength becomes longer with
decreases in frequency, precipitation has little attenuation effect.
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2.13.1.1 Rain
Attenuation because of raindrops is greater than attenuation because of other forms of
precipitation. Attenuation may be caused by absorption, in which the raindrop, acting as a
poor dielectric, absorbs power from the radio wave and dissipates the power by heat loss
or by scattering (fig. 2-24). Raindrops cause greater attenuation by scattering than by
absorption at frequencies above 100 megahertz. At frequencies above 6 gigahertz,
attenuation by raindrop scatter is even greater.
2.13.1.2 Fog
In the discussion of attenuation, fog may be considered as another form of rain. Since fog
remains suspended in the atmosphere, the attenuation is determined by the quantity of
water per unit volume and by the size of the droplets. Attenuation because of fog is of
minor importance at frequencies lower than 2 gigahertz. However, fog can cause serious
attenuation by absorption, at frequencies above 2 gigahertz.
Figure 2-24 Rf energy losses from scattering
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2.13.1.3 Snow
The scattering effect because of snow is difficult to compute because of irregular sizes
and shapes of the flakes. While information on the attenuating effect of snow is limited,
scientists assume that attenuation from snow is less than from rain falling at an equal rate.
This assumption is borne out by the fact that the density of rain is eight times the density
of snow. As a result, rain falling at 1 inch per hour would have more water per cubic inch
than snow falling at the same rate.
2.13.1.4 Hail
Attenuation by hail is determined by the size of the stones and their density. Attenuation
of radio waves by scattering because of hailstones is considerably less than by rain.
2.13.2 Temperature Inversion
Under normal atmospheric conditions, the warmest air is found near the surface of the
Earth. The air gradually becomes cooler as altitude increases. At times, however, an
unusual situation develops in which layers of warm air are formed above layers of cool
air. This condition is known as TEMPERATURE INVERSION. These temperature
inversions cause channels, or ducts, of cool air to be sandwiched between the surface of
the Earth and a layer of warm air, or between two layers of warm air.
If a transmitting antenna extends into such a duct of cool air, or if the radio wave enters
the duct at a very low angle of incidence, vhf and uhf transmissions may be propagated
far beyond normal line-of-sight distances. When ducts are present as a result of
temperature inversions, good reception of vhf and uhf television signals from a station
located hundreds of miles away is not unusual. These long distances are possible because
of the different densities and refractive qualities of warm and cool air. The sudden change
in density when a radio wave enters the warm air above a duct causes the wave to be
refracted back toward Earth. When the wave strikes the Earth or a warm layer below the
duct, it is again reflected or refracted upward and proceeds on through the duct with a
multiple-hop type of action. An example of the propagation of radio waves by ducting is
shown in figure 2-25.
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Q42. How do raindrops affect radio waves?
Q43. How does fog affect radio waves at frequencies above 2 gigahertz?
Q44. How is the term "temperature inversion" used when referring to radio waves?
Q45. How does temperature inversion affect radio transmission?
Figure 2-25 Duct effect caused by temperature inversion
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2.14 TROPOSPHERIC PROPAGATION
As the lowest region of the Earth's atmosphere, the troposphere extends from the Earth's
surface to a height of slightly over 7 miles. Virtually all weather phenomena occur in this
region. Generally, the troposphere is characterized by a steady decrease in both
temperature and pressure as height is increased. However, the many changes in weather
phenomena cause variations in humidity and an uneven heating of the Earth's surface. As
a result, the air in the troposphere is in constant motion. This motion causes small
turbulences, or eddies, to be formed, as shown by the bouncing of aircraft entering
turbulent areas of the atmosphere. These turbulences are most intense near the Earth's
surface and gradually diminish with height. They have a refractive quality that permits
the refracting or scattering of radio waves with short wavelengths. This scattering
provides enhanced communications at higher frequencies.
Recall that in the relationship between frequency and wavelength, wavelength decreases
as frequency increases and vice versa. Radio waves of frequencies below 30 megahertz
normally have wavelengths longer than the size of weather turbulences. These radio
waves are, therefore, affected very little by the turbulences. On the other hand, as the
frequency increases into the vhf range and above, the wavelengths decrease in size, to the
point that they become subject to tropospheric scattering. The usable frequency range for
tropospheric scattering is from about 100 megahertz to 10 gigahertz.
2.15 TROPOSPHERIC SCATTERING
When a radio wave passing through the troposphere meets a turbulence, it makes an
abrupt change in velocity. This causes a small amount of the energy to be scattered in a
forward direction and returned to Earth at distances beyond the horizon. This
phenomenon is repeated as the radio wave meets other turbulences in its path. The total
received signal is an accumulation of the energy received from each of the turbulences.
This scattering mode of propagation enables vhf and uhf signals to be transmitted far
beyond the normal line-of-sight. To better understand how these signals are transmitted
over greater distances, you must first consider the propagation characteristics of the space
wave used in vhf and uhf line-of-sight communications. When the space wave is
transmitted, it undergoes very little attenuation within the line-of-sight horizon. When it
reaches the horizon, the wave is diffracted and follows the Earth's curvature. Beyond the
horizon, the rate of attenuation increases very rapidly and signals soon become very weak
and unusable.
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Tropospheric scattering, on the other hand, provides a usable signal at distances beyond
the point where the diffracted space wave drops to an unusable level. This is because of
the height at which scattering takes place. The turbulence that causes the scattering can
be visualized as a relay station located above the horizon; it receives the transmitted
energy and then reradiates it in a forward direction to some point beyond the line-of-sight
distance. A high gain receiving antenna aimed toward this scattered energy can then
capture it.
The magnitude of the received signal depends on the number of turbulences causing
scatter in the desired direction and the gain of the receiving antenna. The scatter area used
for tropospheric scatter is known as the scatter volume. The angle at which the receiving
antenna must be aimed to capture the scattered energy is called the scatter angle. The
scatter volume and scatter angle are shown in figure 2-26.
The signal take-off angle (transmitting antenna's angle of radiation) determines the height
of the scatter volume and the size of the scatter angle. A low signal take-off angle
produces a low scatter volume, which in turn permits a receiving antenna that is aimed at
a low angle to the scatter volume to capture the scattered energy.
Figure 2-26 Tropospheric scattering propagation
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As the signal take-off angle is increased, the height of the scatter volume is increased.
When this occurs, the amount of received energy decreases. There are two reasons for
this: (1) scatter angle increases as the height of the scatter volume is increased; (2) the
amount of turbulence decreases with height. As the distance between the transmitting and
receiving antennas is increased, the height of the scatter volume must also be increased.
The received signal level, therefore, decreases as circuit distance is increased.
The tropospheric region that contributes most strongly to tropospheric scatter propagation
lies near the midpoint between the transmitting and receiving antennas and just above the
radio horizon of the antennas.
Since tropospheric scatter depends on turbulence in the atmosphere, changes in
atmospheric conditions have an effect on the strength of the received signal. Both daily
and seasonal variations in signal strength occur as a result of changes in the atmosphere.
These variations are called long-term fading.
In addition to long-term fading, the tropospheric scatter signal often is characterized by
very rapid fading because of multipath propagation. Since the turbulent condition is
constantly changing, the path lengths and individual signal levels are also changing,
resulting in a rapidly changing signal. Although the signal level of the received signal is
constantly changing, the average signal level is stable; therefore, no complete fade out
occurs.
Another characteristic of a tropospheric scatter signal is its relatively low power level.
Since very little of the scattered energy is reradiated toward the receiver, the efficiency is
very low and the signal level at the final receiver point is low. Initial input power must be
high to compensate for the low efficiency in the scatter volume. This is accomplished by
using high-power transmitters and high-gain antennas, which concentrate the transmitted
power into a beam, thus increasing the intensity of energy of each turbulence in the
volume. The receiver must also be very sensitive to detect the low-level signals.
2.16 APPLICATION OF TROPOSPHERIC SCATTERING
Tropospheric scatter propagation is used for point-to-point communications. A correctly
designed tropospheric scatter circuit will provide highly reliable service for distances
ranging from 50 miles to 500 miles. Tropospheric scatter systems may be particularly
useful for communications to locations in rugged terrain that are difficult to reach with
other methods of propagation. One reason for this is that the tropospheric scatter circuit is
not affected by ionospheric and auroral disturbances.
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Q46. In what layer of the atmosphere does virtually all weather phenomena occur?
Q47. Which radio frequency bands use the tropospheric scattering principle for
propagation of radio waves?
Q48. Where is the tropospheric region that contributes most strongly to tropospheric
scatter propagation?
2.17 SUMMARY
Now that you have completed this chapter, let's review some of the new terms, concepts,
and ideas that you have learned. You should have a thorough understanding of these
principles before moving on to chapter 3.
The INDUCTION FIELD contains an E field and an H field and is localized near the
antenna. The E and H fields of the induction field are 90 degrees out of phase with each
other.
The RADIATION FIELD contains E and H fields that are propagated from the antenna
into space in the form of electromagnetic waves. The E and H fields of the radiation field
are in phase with each other.
A HARMONIC FREQUENCY is any frequency that is a whole number multiple of a
smaller basic frequency. For example, a radio wave transmitted at a fundamental
frequency of 3000 hertz can have a second harmonic of 6000 hertz, a third harmonic
frequency of 9000 hertz, etc., transmitted at the same time.
A VERTICALLY POLARIZED antenna transmits an electromagnetic wave with the E
field perpendicular to the Earth's surface. A HORIZONTALLY POLARIZED antenna
transmits a radio wave with the E field parallel to the Earth's surface.
A WAVEFRONT is a small section of an expanding sphere of radiated energy and is
perpendicular to the direction of travel from the antenna.
RADIO WAVES are electromagnetic waves that can be reflected, refracted, and
diffracted in the atmosphere like light and heat waves.
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REFLECTED RADIO WAVES are waves that have been reflected from a surface and
are 180 degrees out of phase with the initial wave.
The Earth's atmosphere is divided into three separate layers: The TROPOSPHERE,
STRATOSPHERE, and IONOSPHERE.
The TROPOSPHERE is the region of the atmosphere where virtually all weather
phenomena take place. In this region, rf energy is greatly affected.
The STRATOSPHERE has a constant temperature and has little effect on radio waves.
The IONOSPHERE contains four cloud-like layers of electrically charged ions which
aid in long distance communications.
GROUND WAVES and SKY WAVES are the two basic types of radio waves that
transmit energy from the transmitting antenna to the receiving antenna.
GROUND WAVES are composed of two separate component waves: the SURFACE
WAVE and the SPACE WAVE.
SURFACE WAVES travel along the contour of the Earth by diffraction.
SPACE WAVES can travel through the air directly to the receiving antenna or can be
reflected from the surface of the Earth.
SKY WAVES, often called ionospheric waves, are radiated in an upward direction and
returned to Earth at some distant location because of refraction.
NATURAL HORIZON is the line-of-sight horizon.
RADIO HORIZON is one-third farther than the natural horizon.
The IONOSPHERE consists of several layers of ions, formed by the process called
ionization.
IONIZATION is the process of knocking electrons free from their parent atom, thus
upsetting electrical neutrality.
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RECOMBINATION is the opposite of ionization; that is, the free ions combine with
positive ions, causing the positive ions to return to their original neutral atom state.
The D LAYER is the lowest region of the ionosphere and refracts signals of low
frequencies back to Earth.
The E LAYER is present during the daylight hours; refracts signals as high as 20
megahertz back to Earth; and is used for communications up to 1500 miles.
The F LAYER is divided into the F1 and F2 layers during the day but combine at night
to form one layer. This layer is responsible for high-frequency, long-range transmission.
The CRITICAL FREQUENCY is the maximum frequency that a radio wave can be
transmitted vertically and still be refracted back to Earth.
The CRITICAL ANGLE is the maximum and/or minimum angle that a radio wave can
be transmitted and still be refracted back to Earth.
SKIP DISTANCE is the distance between the transmitter and the point where the sky
wave first returns to Earth.
SKIP ZONE is the zone of silence between the point where the ground wave becomes
too weak for reception and the point where the sky wave is first returned to Earth.
FADING is caused by variations in signal strength, such as absorption of the rf energy by
the ionosphere.
MULTIPATH FADING occurs when a transmitted signal divides and takes more than
one path to a receiver and some of the signals arrive out of phase, resulting in a weak or
fading signal.
Some TRANSMISSION LOSSES that affect radio-wave propagation are ionospheric
absorption, ground reflection, and free-space losses.
ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI), both natural and man-made,
interfere with radio communications.
The MAXIMUM USABLE FREQUENCY (muf) is the highest frequency that can be
used for communications between two locations at a given angle of incidence and time of
day.
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The LOWEST USABLE FREQUENCY (luf) is the lowest frequency that can be used
for communications between two locations.
OPTIMUM WORKING FREQUENCY (fot) is the most practical operating frequency
and the one that can be relied on to have the fewest problems.
PRECIPITATION ATTENUATION can be caused by rain, fog, snow, and hail; and
can affect overall communications considerably.
TEMPERATURE INVERSION causes channels, or ducts, of cool air to form between
layers of warm air, which can cause radio waves to travel far beyond the normal line-of-
sight distances.
TROPOSPHERIC PROPAGATION uses the scattering principle to achieve beyond
the line-of-sight radio communications within the troposphere.
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ANSWERS TO QUESTIONS Q1. THROUGH Q48.
A1. Induction field and radiation field.
A2. Induction field.
A3. Radiation field.
A4. Fundamental frequency.
A5. Harmonic frequency or harmonics.
A6. 30 meters.
A7. 5 megahertz.
A8. Vertically polarized.
A9. Direction of wave propagation.
A10. Shifting in the phase relationships of the wave.
A11. Troposphere, stratosphere, and ionosphere.
A12. Stratosphere.
A13. Whether the component of the wave is travelling along the surface or over the
surface of the earth.
A14. Radio horizon is about 1/3 farther.
A15. Sea water.
A16. (a) electrical properties of the terrain (b) frequency (c) polarization of the
antenna
A17. High energy ultraviolet light waves from the sun.
A18. D, E, F1, and F2 layers.
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A19. D layer is 30-55 miles, E layer 55-90 miles, and F layers are 90-240 miles.
A20. Thickness of ionized layer.
A21. Critical frequency.
A22. (a) density of ionization of the layer (b) frequency (c) angle at which it enters the
layer
A23. A zone of silence between the ground wave and sky wave where there is no
reception.
A24. Where ionization density is greatest.
A25. A term used to describe the multiple pattern a radio wave may follow.
A26. Selective fading.
A27. Natural and man-made interference.
A28. Natural.
A29. Man-made.
A30. (a) filtering and shielding of the transmitter (b) limiting bandwidth (c) cutting the
antenna to the correct frequency
A31. (a) physical separation of the antenna (b) limiting bandwidth of the antenna (c)
use of directional antennas
A32. Regular and irregular variations.
A33. Regular variations can be predicted but irregular variations are unpredictable.
A34. Daily, seasonal, 11-year, and 27-days variation.
A35. Sporadic E, sudden disturbances, and ionospheric storms.
A36. Muf is maximum usable frequency. Luf is lowest usable frequency. Fot is
commonly known as optimum working frequency.
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A37. Muf is highest around noon. Ultraviolet light waves from the sun are most
intense.
A38. When luf is too low it is absorbed and is too weak for reception.
A39. Signal-to-noise ratio is low and the probability of multipath propagation is
greater.
A40. Frequent signal fading and dropouts.
A41. Fot is the most practical operating frequency that can be relied on to avoid
problems of multipath, absorbtion, and noise.
A42. They can cause attenuation by scattering.
A43. It can cause attenuation by absorbtion.
A44. It is a condition where layers of warm air are formed above layers of cool air.
A45. It can cause vhf and uhf transmission to be propagated far beyond normal line-of-
sight distances.
A46. Troposphere.
A47. Vhf and above.
A48. Near the mid-point between the transmitting and receiving antennas, just above
the radio horizon.