Airplane Flying Handbook (FAA-H-8083-3C)
Chapter 6: Takeoffs and Departure Climbs
Introduction
About twenty percent of all yearly general aviation (GA) accidents occur during takeoff and departure climbs, and more than half of
those accidents are the result of some sort of failure of the pilot. A significant number of takeoff accidents are the result of loss of
control of the airplane. When compared to the entire profile of a normal flight, this phase of a flight is relatively short, but the pilot
workload is intense. This chapter discusses takeoffs and departure climbs in airplanes under normal conditions and under conditions
that require maximum performance.
Though it may seem relatively simple, the takeoff often presents the most hazards of any part of a flight. The importance of thorough
knowledge of procedures and techniques coupled with proficiency in performance cannot be overemphasized.
The discussion in this chapter is centered on airplanes with tricycle landing gear (nose-wheel). Procedures for conventional gear
airplanes (tail-wheel) are discussed in Chapter 14: Transition to Tailwheel Airplanes. The manufacturer’s recommended procedures
pertaining to airplane configuration, airspeeds, and other information relevant to takeoffs and departure climbs in a specific make and
model airplane are contained in the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA)- approved Airplane Flight Manual and/or Pilot’s
Operating Handbook (AFM/POH) for that airplane. If any of the information in this chapter differs from the airplane manufactu rer’s
recommendations as contained in the AFM/POH, the airplane manufacturer’s recommendations take precedence.
Terms and Definitions
Although the takeoff and climb is one continuous maneuver, it will be divided into three separate steps for purposes of explanation:
1.) takeoff roll; 2.) lift-off; and 3.) initial climb after becoming airborne. Refer to Figure 6-1 and the detail below.
⦁ Takeoff roll (ground roll) is the portion of the takeoff procedure during which the airplane is accelerated
from a standstill to an airspeed that provides sufficient lift for it to become airborne.
⦁ Lift-off is when the wings are lifting the weight of the airplane off the surface. In most airplanes, this is the
result of the pilot rotating the nose up to increase the angle of attack (AOA).
⦁ The initial climb begins when the airplane leaves the surface and a climb pitch attitude has been established.
No
rmally, it is considered complete when the airplane has reached a safe maneuvering altitude or an en
route climb has been established.
Prior to Takeoff
Before going to the airplane, the pilot should check the POH/AFM performance charts to determine the predicted performance an d
decide if the airplane is capable of a safe takeoff and climb for the conditions and location. [Figure 6-2] High density altitudes reduce
engine and propeller performance, increase takeoff rolls, and decrease climb performance. A more detailed discussion of density
altitude and how it affects airplane performance can be found in the Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge (FAA-H-8083-25,
as revised).
All run-up and pre-takeoff checklist items should be completed before taxiing onto the runway or takeoff area. As a minimum before
every takeoff, all engine instruments should be checked for proper and usual indications, and all controls should be checked for full,
free, and correct moveme nt. The pilot should also consider available options if an engine failure occurs after takeoff. These options
include the preferred direction for any emergency turns to landing sites based on the departure path, altitude, wind conditions, and
terrain. In addition, the pilot should make certain that the approach and takeoff paths are clear of other aircraft. At nontowered
airports, pilots should announce their intentions on the common traffic advisory frequency (CTAF) assigned to that airport. When
operating from a towered airport, pilots need to contact the tower operator and receive a takeoff clearan ce before taxiing onto the
active runway.
Taking off immediately behind another aircraft, particularly a large and heavy transport airplane, creates the risk of a wake turbulence
encounter, and a possible loss of control. However, if an immediate takeoff behind a large heavy aircraft is necessary, the pilot should
plan to minimize the chances of flying through an aircraft’s wake turbulence by avoiding the other aircraft’s flightpath or rotating
prior to the point at which the preceding aircraft rotated. While taxiing onto the runway, the pilot should select ground reference
points that are aligned with the runway direction to aid in maintaining directional control and alignment with the runway center line
during the climb out. These may be runway centerline markings, runway lighting, distant trees, towers, buildings, or mountain peaks.
Figure 6-1. Takeoff and climb.
Figure 6-2. Performance chart examples.
Normal Takeoff
A normal takeoff is one in which the airplane is headed into the wind; there are times that a takeoff with a tail wind is necessary.
However, the pilot should consult the POH/AFM to ensure the aircraft is approved for a takeoff with a tail wind and that there is
sufficient performance and runway length for the takeoff. The pilot should also ensure that the takeoff surfaces are firm and of
sufficient length to permit the airplane to gradually accelerate to normal lift-off and climb-out speed, and there are no obstructions
along the takeoff path.
There are two reasons for making a takeoff as nearly into the wind as possible. First, since the airplane depends on airspeed, a
headwind provides some of that airspeed even before the airplane begins to accelerate into the wind. Second, a headwind decreases
the ground speed necessary to achieve flying speed. Slower ground speeds yield shorter ground roll distances and allow use of shorter
runways while reducing wear and stress on the landing gear.
Takeoff Roll
For takeoff, the pilot uses the rudder pedals in most general aviation airplanes to steer the airplane’s nose-wheel onto the runway
centerline to align the airplane and nose-wheel with the runway. After releasing the brakes, the pilot should advance the throttle
smoothly and continuously to takeoff power. An abrupt application of power may cause the airplane to yaw sharply to the left because
of the torque effects of the engine and propeller. This is most apparent in high horsepower engines. As the airplane starts to roll
forward, assure both feet are on the rudder pedals so that the toes or balls of the feet are on the rudder portions, not on the brake.
Check the engine instruments for indications of a malfunction during the takeoff roll.
In nose-wheel type airplanes, pressures on the elevator control are not necessary beyond those needed to steady it. Applying
unnecessary pressure only aggravates the takeoff and prevents the pilot from recognizing when elevator control pressure is actually
needed to establish the takeoff attitude.
As the airplane gains speed, the elevator control tends to assume a neutral position if the airplane is correctly trimmed. At the same
time, the rudder pedals are used to keep the nose of the airplane pointed down the runway and parallel to the centerline. The effects of
engine torque and P-factor at the initial speeds tend to pull the nose to the left. The pilot should use whatever rudder pressure is
needed to correct for these effects or winds. The pilot should use aileron controls into any crosswind to keep the airplane centered on
the runway centerline. The pilot should avoid using the brakes for steering purposes as this will slow acceleration, lengthen the
takeoff distance, and possibly result in severe swerving.
As the speed of the takeoff roll increases, more and more pressure will be felt on the flight controls, particularly the elevators and
rudder. If the tail surfaces are affected by the propeller slipstream, they become effective first. As the speed continues to increase, all
of the flight controls will gradually become effective enough to maneuver the airplane about its three axes. At this point, the airplane
is being flown more than it is being taxied. As this occurs, progressively smaller rudder deflections are needed to maintain direction.
The feel of resistance to the movement of the controls and the airplane’s reaction to such movements are the only real indicators of
the degree of control attained. This feel of resistance is not a measure of the airplane’s speed, but rather of its controllability. To
determine the degree of controllability, the pilot should be conscious of the reaction of the airplane to the control pressures and
immediately adjust the pressures as needed to control the airplane. The pilot should wait for the reaction of the airplane to the applied
control pressures and attempt to sense the control resistance to pressure rather than attempt to control the airplane by movement of the
controls.
A student pilot does not normally have a full appreciation of the variations of control pressures with the speed of the airplane. The
student may tend to move the controls through wide ranges seeking the pressures that are familiar and expected and, as a
consequence, over-control the airplane.
The situation may be aggravated by the sluggish reaction of the airplane to these movements. The flight instructor should help the
student learn proper response to control actions and airplane reactions. The instructor should always stress using the proper outside
reference to judge airplane motion. For takeoff, the student should always be looking far down the runway at two points aligned with
the runway. The flight instructor should have the student pilot follow through lightly on the controls, feel for resistance, and point out
the outside references that provide the clues for how much control movement is needed and how the pressure and response changes as
airspeed increases. With practice, the student pilot should become familiar with the airplane’s response to acceleration up to lift-off
speed, corrective control movements needed, and the outside references necessary to accomplish the takeoff maneuver.
Lift-Off
Since a good takeoff depends on the proper takeoff attitude, it is important to know how this attitude appears and how it is attained.
The ideal takeoff attitude requires only minimum pitch adjustments shortly after the airplane lifts off to attain the speed for the best
rate of climb (VY). [Figure 6-3] The pitch attitude necessary for the airplane to accelerate to V Y speed should be demonstrated by the
instructor and memorized by the student. Flight instructors should be aware that initially, the student pilot may have a tendency to
hold excessive back-elevator pressure just after lift-off, resulting in an abrupt pitch-up.
Figure 6-3. Initial roll and takeoff attitude.
Each type of airplane has a best pitch attitude for normal lift-off; however, varying conditions may make a difference in the required
takeoff technique. A rough field, a smooth field, a hard surface runway, or a short or soft, muddy field all call for a slightly different
technique, as will smooth air in contrast to a strong, gusty wind. The different techniques for those other-than-normal conditions are
discussed later in this chapter.
When all the flight controls become effective during the takeoff roll in a nose-wheel type airplane, the pilot should gradually apply
back-elevator pressure to raise the nose-wheel slightly off the runway, thus establishing the takeoff or lift-off attitude. This is the
“rotation” for lift-off and climb. As the airplane lifts off the surface, the pitch attitude to hold the climb airspeed should be held with
elevator control and trimmed to maintain that pitch attitude without excessive control pressures. The wings should be leveled after
lift-off and the rudder used to ensure coordinated flight.
After rotation, the slightly nose-high pitch attitude should be held until the airplane lifts off. Rudder control should be used to
maintain the track of the airplane along the runway centerline until any required crab angle in level flight is established. Forcing it
into the air by applying excessive back-elevator pressure would only result in an excessively high-pitch attitude and may delay the
takeoff. As discussed earlier, excessive and rapid changes in pitch attitude result in proportionate changes in the effects of torque,
thus making the airplane more difficult to control.
Although the airplane can be forced into the air, this is considered an unsafe practice and should be avoided under normal
circumstances. If the airplane is forced to leave the ground by using too much back-elevator pressure before adequate flying speed is
attained, the wing’s AOA may become excessive, causing the airplane to settle back to the runway or even to stall. On the other hand,
if sufficient back-elevator pressure is not held to maintain the correct takeoff attitude after becoming airborne, or the nose is allowed
to lower excessively, the airplane may also settle back to the runway. This would occur because the AOA is decreased and lift
diminished to the degree where it will not support the airplane. It is important, then, to hold the correct attitude constant after rotation
or lift-off.
As the airplane leaves the ground, the pilot should keep the wings in a level attitude and hold the proper pitch attitude. Outside visual
scans should be intensified at this critical point to attain/maintain proper airplane pitch and bank attitude. Due to the minimum
airspeed, the flight controls are not as responsive, requiring more control movement to achieve an expected response. A novice pilot
often has a tendency to fixate on the airplane’s pitch attitude and/or the airspeed indicator and neglect bank control of the airplane.
Torque from the engine tends to impart a rolling force that is most evident as the landing gear is leaving the surface.
During takeoffs in a strong, gusty wind, it is advisable that an extra margin of speed be obtained before the airplane is allowed to
leave the ground. A takeoff at the normal takeoff speed may result in a lack of positive control, or a stall, when the airplane
encounters a sudden lull in strong, gusty wind, or other turbulent air currents. In this case, the pilot should allow the airplane to stay
on the ground longer to attain more speed, then make a smooth, positive rotation to leave the ground.
Initial Climb
Upon liftoff, the airplane should be flying at approximately the pitch attitude that allows it to accelerate to V Y. This is the speed at
which the airplane gains the most altitude in the shortest period of time.
If the airplane has been properly trimmed for takeoff, some back-elevator pressure may be required to hold this attitude until the
proper climb speed is established. Relaxation of any back-elevator pressure before this time may result in the airplane settling, even to
the extent that it contacts the runway.
The airplane’s speed will increase rapidly after it becomes airborne. Once a positive rate of climb is established, the pilot should
retract the flaps and landing gear (if equipped). It is recommended that takeoff power be maintained until reaching an altitude of at
least 500 feet above the surrounding terrain or obstacles. The combination of V Y and takeoff power assures the maximum altitude
gained in a minimum amount of time. This gives the pilot more altitude from which the airplane can be safely maneuvered in case of
an engine failure or other emergency. The pilot should also consider flying at a lower pitch for cruise climb since flying at V Y
requires much quicker pilot response in the event of a powerplant failure to preclude a stall.
Since the power on the initial climb is set at the takeoff power setting, the airspeed should be controlled by making slight pitch
adjustments using the elevators. However, the pilot should not fixate on the airspeed indicator when making these pitch changes, but
should continue to scan outside to adjust the airplane’s attitude in relation to the horizon. In accordance with the principles of attitude
flying, the pilot should first make the necessary pitch change with reference to the natural horizon, hold the new attitude momentarily,
and then glance at the airspeed indicator to verify if the new attitude is correct. Due to inertia, the airplane will not accelerate or
decelerate immediately as the pitch is changed. It takes a little time for the airspeed to change. If the pitch attitude has been over or
under corrected, the airspeed indicator will show a speed that is higher or lower than that desired. When this occurs, the cross -
checking and appropriate pitch-changing process needs to be repeated until the desired climbing attitude is established. Pilots should
remember the climb pitch will be lower when the airplane is heavily loaded, or power is limited by density altitude.
When the correc t pitch attitud e has been attained, th e pilot should hold it constant while cross-checking it against the horizon and
other outside visual references. The airspeed indicator should be used only as a check to determine if the attitude is correct.
After the recommended climb airspeed has been established and a safe maneuvering altitude has been reached, the pilot should adjust
the power to the recommended climb setting and trim the airplane to relieve the control pressures. This makes it easier to h old a
constant attitude and airspeed.
During initial climb, it is important that the takeoff path remain aligned with the runway to avoid drifting into obstructions or into the
path of another aircraft that may be taking off from a parallel runway. A flight instructor should help the student identify two points
inline ahead of the runway to use as a tracking reference. As long as those two points are inline, the airplane is remaining on the
desired track. Proper scanning techniques are essential to a safe takeoff and climb, not only for maintaining attitude and direction, but
also for avoiding collisions near the airport.
When the student pilot nears the solo stage of flight training, it should be explained that the airplane’s takeoff performance will be
much different when the instructor is not in the airplane. Due to decreased load, the airplane will become airborne earlier and climb
more rapidly. The pitch attitude that the student has learned to associate with initial climb may also differ due to decreased weight,
and the flight controls may seem more sensitive. If the situation is unexpected, it may result in increased anxiety that may remain until
after the landing. Frequently, the existence of this anxiety and the uncertainty that develops due to the perception of an “abnormal”
takeoff results in poor performance on the subsequent landing.
Common Errors
Common errors in the performance of normal takeoffs and departure climbs are:
⦁ Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts prior to takeoff.
⦁ Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing into position on the active runway.
⦁ Abrupt use of the throttle.
⦁ Failure to check engine instruments for signs of malfunction after applying takeoff power.
⦁ Failure to anticipate the airplane’s left turning tendency on initial acceleration.
⦁ Overcorrecting for left turning tendency.
⦁ Relying solely on the airspeed indicator rather than developing an understanding of visual references and
tracking clues of airplane airspeed and controllability during acceleration and lift-off.
⦁ Failure to attain proper lift-off attitude.
⦁ Inadequate compensation for torque/P-factor during initial climb resulting in a sideslip.
⦁ Over-control of elevators during initial climb-out and lack of elevator trimming.
⦁ Limiting scan to areas directly ahead of the airplane (pitch attitude and direction), causing a wing
(usually the left) to drop immediately after lift-off.
⦁ Failure to attain/maintain best rate-of-climb airspeed (VY) or desired climb airspeed.
⦁ Failure to employ the principles of attitude flying during climb-out, resulting in “chasing” the airspeed
indicator.
Crosswind Takeoff
While it is usually preferable to take off directly into the wind whenever possible or practical, there are many instances when
circumstances or judgment indicate otherwise. Therefore, the pilot must be familiar with the principles and techniques involved in
crosswind takeoffs, as well as those for normal takeoffs. A crosswind affects the airplane during takeoff much as it does during
taxiing. With this in mind, the pilot should be aware that the technique used for crosswind correction during takeoffs closely parallels
the crosswind correction techniques used for taxiing.
Takeoff Roll
The technique used during the initial takeoff roll in a crosswind is generally the same as the technique used in a normal takeoff roll,
except that the pilot needs to apply aileron pressure into the crosswind. This raises the aileron on the upwind wing, imposes a
downward force on that wing to counteract the lifting force of the crosswind, and thus prevents the wing from rising. The pilot should
remember that since the ailerons and rudder are deflected, drag will increase; therefore, less initial takeoff performance should be
expected until the airplane is wings-level in coordinated flight in the climb.
While taxiing into takeoff position, it is essential that the pilot check the windsock and other wind direction indicators for the
presence of a crosswind. If a crosswind is present, the pilot should apply full aileron pressure into the wind while beginning the
takeoff roll. The pilot should maintain this control position, as the airplane accelerates, and until the ailerons become effective in
maneuvering the airplane about its longitudinal axis. As the ailerons become effective, the pilot will feel an increase in pressure on
the aileron control.
While holding aileron pressure into the wind, the pilot should use the rudder to maintain a straight takeoff path. [Figure 6-4] Since
the airplane tends to weathervane into the wind while on the ground, the pilot will typically apply downwind rudder pressure. When
the pilot increases power for takeoff, the resulting P-factor causes the airplane to yaw to the left. While this yaw may be sufficient to
counteract the airplane’s tendency to weathervane into the wind in a crosswind from the right, it may aggravate this tendency in a
crosswind from the left. In any case, the pilot should apply rudder pressure in the appropriate direction to keep the airplane rolling
straight down the runway.
Figure 6-4. Crosswind roll and takeoff climb.
As the forward speed of the airplane increases, the pilot should apply sufficient aileron pressure into the crosswind to keep the wings
level. The effect of the crosswind component will not completely vanish; therefore, the pilot needs to maintain some aileron pressure
throughout the takeoff roll. If the upwind wing rises, the amount of wing surface exposed to the crosswind will increase, which may
cause the airplane to lose lateral alignment with the runway centerline and to "skip." [Figure 6-5] The pilot uses rudder pressure to
keep the airplane’s longitudinal axis parallel to the runway centerline.
This “skipping” is usually indicated by a series of very small bounces caused by the airplane attempting to fly and then settling back
onto the runway. During these bounces, the crosswind also tends to move the airplane sideways, and these bounces develop into side-
skipping. This side-skipping imposes severe side stresses on the landing gear and may result in structural failure.
During a crosswind takeoff roll, it is important that the pilot hold sufficient aileron pressure into the wind not only to keep the upwind
wing from rising but to hold that wing down so that the airplane sideslips into the wind enough to counteract drift immediately after
lift-off.
Lift-Off
As the nose-wheel raises off of the runway, the pilot should hold aileron pressure into the wind. This may cause the downwind wing
to rise and the downwind main wheel to lift off the runway first, with the remainder of the takeoff roll being made on that one main
wheel. This is acceptable and is preferable to side-skipping.
If a significant crosswind exists, the pilot should hold the main wheels on the ground slightly longer than in a normal takeoff so that a
smooth but very definite lift-off can be made. This allows the airplane to leave the ground under more positive control and helps it
remain airborne while the pilot establishes the proper amount of wind correction. More importantly, this procedure avoids imposing
excessive side-loads on the landing gear and prevents possible damage that would result from the airplane settling back to the runway
while drifting.