As both main wheels leave the runway, the airplane begins to drift sideways with the wind, as ground friction is no longer a factor in
preventing lateral movement. To minimize this lateral movement and to keep the upwind wing from rising, the pilot should establish
and maintain the proper amount of crosswind correction prior to lift-off by applying aileron pressure into the wind. The pilot should
also apply rudder pressure, as needed, to prevent weathervaning.
Figure 6-5. Crosswind effect.
Initial Climb
If a proper crosswind correction is applied, the aircraft will maintain alignment with the runway while accelerating to takeoff speed
and then maintain that alignment once airborne. As takeoff acceleration occurs, the efficiency of the up-aileron will increase with
aircraft speed causing the upwind wing to produce greater downward force and, as a result, counteract the effect of the crosswind.
The yoke, having been initially turned into the wind, can be relaxed to the extent necessary to keep the aircraft aligned with the
runway. As the aircraft becomes flyable and airborne, the wing that is upwind will have a tendency to be lower relative the other
wing, requiring simultaneous rudder input to maintain runway alignment. This will initially cause the aircraft to sideslip. However, as
the aircraft establishes its climb, the nose should be turned into the wind to offset the crosswind, wings brought to level, and rudder
input adjusted to maintain runway alignment (crabbing). [Figure 6-6] Firm and positive use of the rudder may be required to keep the
airplane pointed down the runway or parallel to the centerline. Unlike landing, the runway alignment (staying over the runway and its
extended centerline) is paramount to keeping the aircraft parallel to the centerline. The pilot should then apply rudder pressure firmly
and aggressively to keep the airplane headed straight down the runway. However, because the force of a crosswind may vary
markedly within a few hundred feet of the ground, the pilot should check the ground track frequently and adjust the wind correction
angle, as necessary. The remainder of the climb technique is the same used for normal takeoffs and climbs.
Figure 6-6. Crosswind climb flightpath.
The most common errors made while performing crosswind takeoffs include the following:
⦁ Failure to review AFM/POH performance and charts prior to takeoff.
⦁ Failure to adequately clear the area prior to taxiing onto the active runway.
⦁ Using less than full aileron pressure into the wind initially on the takeoff roll.
⦁ Mechanical use of aileron control rather than judging lateral position of airplane on runway from
visual clues and applying sufficient aileron to keep airplane centered laterally on runway.
⦁ Side-skipping due to improper aileron application.
⦁ Inadequate rudder control to maintain airplane parallel to centerline and pointed straight ahead in
alignment with visual references.
⦁ Excessive aileron input in the latter stage of the takeoff roll resulting in a steep bank into the wind at
lift-off.
⦁ Inadequate drift correction after lift-off.
Ground Effect on Takeoff
Ground effect is a condition of improved performance encountered when the airplane is operating very close to the ground. Ground
effect can be detected and normally occurs up to an altitude equal to one wingspan above the surface. [Figure 6-7] Ground effect is
most significant when the airplane maintains a constant attitude at low airspeed at low altitude (for example, during takeoff when the
airplane lifts off and accelerates to climb speed, and during the landing flare before touchdown).
Figure 6-7. Takeoff in ground effect area.
When the wing is under the influence of ground effect, there is a reduction in upwash, downwash, and wingtip vortices. As a result of
the reduced wingtip vortices, induced drag is reduced. When the wing is at a height equal to 1/4 the span, the reduction in induced
drag is about 25 percent. When the wing is at a height equal to 1/10 the span, the reduction in induced drag is about 50 percent. At
high speeds where parasite drag dominates, induced drag is a small part of the total drag. Consequently, ground effect is a greater
concern during takeoff and landing.
At takeoff, the takeoff roll, lift-off, and the beginning of the initial climb are accomplished within the ground effect area. The ground
effect causes local increases in static pressure, which cause the airspeed indicator and altimeter to indicate slightly lower values than
they should and usually cause the vertical speed indicator to indicate a descent. As the airplane lifts off and climbs out of the ground
effect area, the following occurs:
⦁ The airplane requires an increase in AOA to maintain lift coefficient.
⦁ The airplane experiences an increase in induced drag and thrust required.
⦁ The airplane experiences a pitch-up tendency and requires less elevator travel because of an increase
in downwash at the horizontal tail.
⦁ The airplane experiences a reduction in static source pressure and a corresponding increase in
indicated airspeed.
VX is the speed at which the airplane achieves the greatest gain in altitude for a given distance over the ground. It is usually slightly
less than VY, which is the greatest gain in altitude per unit of time. The specific speeds to be used for a given airplane are stated in the
FAA-approved AFM/POH. The pilot should be aware that, in some airplanes, a deviation of 5 knots from the recommended speed
may result in a significant reduction in climb performance; therefore, the pilot should maintain precise control of the airspeed to
ensure the maneuver is executed safely and successfully.
Due to the reduced drag in ground effect, the airplane may seem to be able to take off below the recommended airspeed. However, as
the airplane climbs out of ground effect below the recommended climb speed, initial climb performance will be much less than at V Y
or even V X. Under conditions of high density altitude, high temperature, and/or maximum gross weight, the airplane may be able to
lift off but will be unable to climb out of ground effect. Consequently, the airplane may not be able to clear obstructions. Lift-off
before attaining recommended flight airspeed incurs more drag, which requires more power to overcome. Since the initial take off and
climb is based on maximum power, reducing drag is the only option. To reduce drag, pitch should be reduced which means losing
altitude. Pilots should remember that many airplanes cannot safely takeoff at maximum gross weight at certain altitudes and
temperatures, due to lack of performance. Therefore, under marginal conditions, it is important that the airplane takes off at the speed
recommended for adequate initial climb performance.
Ground effect is important to normal flight operations. If the runway is long enough or if no obstacles exist, ground effect can be used
to the pilot’s advantage by using the reduced drag to improve initial acceleration.
When taking off from an unsatisfactory surface, the pilot should apply as much weight to the wings as possible during the ground run
and lift-off, using ground effect as an aid, prior to attaining true flying speed. The pilot should reduce AOA to attain normal airspeed
before attempting to fly out of the ground effect areas.
Short-Field Takeoff and Maximum Performance Climb
When performing takeoffs and climbs from fields where the takeoff area is short or the available takeoff area is restricted b y
obstructions, the pilot should operate the airplane at the maximum limit of its takeoff performance capabilities. To depart from such
an area safely, the pilot needs to exercise positive and precise control of airplane attitude and airspeed, so that takeoff and climb
performance result in the shortest ground roll and the steepest angle of climb. [Figure 6-8] The pilot should consult and follow the
performance section of the AFM/POH to obtain the power setting, flap setting, airspeed, and procedures prescribed by the air plane’s
manufacturer.
Figure 6-8. Short-field takeoff.
The pilot should have adequate knowledge in the use and effectiveness of the best angle-o f-climb speed (V X) and the best rate-o f-
climb speed (V Y) for the specific make and model of airplane being flown in order to safely accomplish a takeoff at maximum
performance.
Takeoff Roll
Taking off from a short field requires the takeoff to be started from the very beginning of the takeoff area. At this point, the airplane is
aligned with the intended takeoff path. If the airplane manufacturer recommends the use of flaps, they are extended the proper amount
before beginning the takeoff roll. This allows the pilot to devote full attention to the proper technique and the airplane’s performance
throughout the takeoff.
The pilot should apply takeoff power smoothly and continuously, without hesitation, to accelerate the airplane as rapidly as possible.
Some pilots prefer to hold the brakes until the maximum obtainable engine revolutions per minute (rpm) are achieved before allowing
the airplane to begin its takeoff run. However, it has not been established that this procedure results in a shorter takeoff run in all
light, single-engine airplanes. The airplane is allowed to roll with its full weight on the main wheels and accelerate to the lift-off
speed. As the takeoff roll progresses, the pilot should adjust the airplane’s pitch attitude and AOA to attain minimum drag and
maximum acceleration. In nose-wheel type airplanes, this involves little use of the elevator control since the airplane is already in a
low-drag attitude.
Lift-Off
As V X approaches, the pilot should apply back-elevator pressure until reaching the appropriate V X attitude to ensure a smooth and
firm lift-off, or rotation. Since the airplane accelerates more rapidly after lift-off, the pilot should apply additional back-
elevator pressure to hold a constant airspeed. After becoming airborne, the pilot will maintain a wings-level climb at V X until all
obstacles have been cleared, or if no obstacles are present, until reaching an altitude of at least 50 feet above the takeoff surface.
Thereafter, the pilot may lower the pitch attitude slightly and continue the climb at VY until reaching a safe maneuvering altitude. The
pilot should always remember that an attempt to pull the airplane off the ground prematurely, or to climb too steeply, may cause
the airplane to settle back to the runway or make contact with obstacles. Even if the airplane remains airborne, until the pilot reaches
VX, the initial climb will remain flat, which diminishes the pilot's ability to successfully perform the climb and/or clear obstacles.
[Figure 6-9]
Figure 6-9. Effect of premature lift-off.
The objective is to rotate to the appropriate pitch attitude at (or near) V X. The pilot should be aware that some airplanes have a
natural tendency to lift off well before reaching V X. In these airplanes, it may be necessary to allow the airplane to lift off in ground
effect and then reduce pitch attitude to level until the airplane accelerates to V X with the wheels just clear of the runway surface. This
method is preferable to forcing the airplane to remain on the ground with forward elevator-control pressure until V X is attained.
Holding the airplane on the ground unnecessarily puts excessive pressure on the nose- wheel and may result in “wheel barrowing.” It
also hinders both acceleration and overall airplane performance.
Initial Climb
On short-field takeoffs, the landing gear and flaps should remain in takeoff position until the airplane is clear of obstacles (or
as recommended by the manufacturer) and V Y has been established. Until all obstacles have been cleared, the pilot should
maintain focus outside the airplane instead of reaching for landing gear or flap controls or looking inside the airplane for any reason.
When the airplane is stabilized at VY, the landing gear (if retractable) and flaps should be retracted. It is usually advisable to raise the
flaps in increments to avoid sudden loss of lift and settling of the airplane. The pilot should next reduce the power to the normal climb
setting or as recommended by the airplane manufacturer.
Common errors in the performance of short-field takeoffs and maximum performance climbs are:
⦁ Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts prior to takeoff.
⦁ Failure to adequately clear the area.
⦁ Failure to utilize all available runway/takeoff area.
⦁ Failure to have the airplane properly trimmed prior to takeoff.
⦁ Premature lift-off resulting in high drag.
⦁ Holding the airplane on the ground unnecessarily with excessive forward-elevator pressure.
⦁ Inadequate rotation resulting in excessive speed after lift-off.
⦁ Inability to attain/maintain VX.
⦁ Fixation on the airspeed indicator during initial climb.
⦁ Premature retraction of landing gear and/or wing flaps.
Soft/Rough-Field Takeoff and Climb
Takeoffs and climbs from soft fields require the use of operational techniques for getting the airplane airborne as quickly as possible
to eliminate the drag caused by tall grass, soft sand, mud, and snow and may require climbing over an obstacle. The technique makes
judicious use of ground effect to reduce landing gear drag and requires an understanding of the airplane’s slow speed characteristics
and responses. These same techniques are also useful on a rough field where the pilot should get the airplane off the ground as soon
as possible to avoid damaging the landing gear.
Taking off from a soft surface or through soft surfaces or long, wet grass reduces the airplane’s ability to accelerate during the takeoff
roll and may prevent the airplane from reaching adequate takeoff speed if the pilot applies normal takeoff techniques. The pilot
should be aware that the correct takeoff procedure for soft fields is quite different from the takeoff procedures used for short fields
with firm, smooth surfaces. To minimize the hazards associated with takeoffs from soft or rough fields, the pilot should transfer the
support of the airplane’s weight as rapidly as possible from the wheels to the wings as the takeoff roll proceeds by establishing and
maintaining a relatively high AOA or nose-high pitch attitude as early as possible. The pilot should lower the wing flaps prior to
starting the takeoff (if recommended by the manufacturer) to provide additional lift and to transfer the airplane’s weight from the
wheels to the wings as early as possible. The pilot should maintain a continuous motion with sufficient power while lining up for the
takeoff roll as stopping on a soft surface, such as mud or snow, might bog the airplane down.
Takeoff Roll
As the airplane is aligned with the takeoff path, the pilot should apply takeoff power smoothly and as rapidly as the powerplant can
accept without faltering. As the airplane accelerates, the pilot should apply enough back-elevator pressure to establish a positive AOA
and to reduce the weight supported by the nose-wheel.
When the airplane is held at a nose-high attitude throughout the takeoff run, the wings increasingly relieve the wheels of the airplane’s
weight as speed increases and lift develops, thereby minimizing the drag caused by surface irregularities or adhesion. If this attitude is
accurately maintained, the airplane virtually flies itself off the ground, becoming airborne but at an airspeed slower than a safe climb
speed because of ground effect. [Figure 6-10]
Figure 6-10. Soft-field takeoff.
Lift-Off
After the airplane becomes airborne, the pilot should gently lower the nose with the wheels clear of the surface to allow the airplane
to accelerate to a minimum safe climb out speed, Immediately after the airplane becomes airborne and while it accelerates, the pilot
should be aware that, while transitioning out of the ground effect area, the airplane will have a tendency to settle back onto
the surface, even with full power applied. Therefore, it is essential that the airplane remain in ground effect until at least V X is
reached. This requires a good understanding of the control pressures, aircraft responses, visual clues, and acceleration
characteristics of that particular airplane.
Initial Climb
After a positive rate of climb is established, and the airplane has accelerated to V Y, the pilot should retract the landing gear and flaps,
if equipped. If departing from an airstrip with wet snow or slush on the takeoff surface, the gear should not be retracted immediately
so that any wet snow or slush can be air-dried. In the event an obstacle needs to be cleared after a soft-field takeoff, the pilot should
perform the climb-out at V X until the obstacle has been cleared. The pilot should then adjust the pitch attitude to V Y and retract the
gear and flaps. The power can then be reduced to the normal climb setting.
Common errors in the performance of soft/rough field takeoff and climbs are:
⦁ Failure to review AFM/POH and performance charts prior to takeoff.
⦁ Failure to adequately clear the area.
⦁ Insufficient back-elevator pressure during initial takeoff roll resulting in inadequate AOA.
⦁ Failure to cross-check engine instruments for indications of proper operation after applying power.
⦁ Poor directional control.
⦁ Climbing too high after lift-off and not levelng off low enough to maintain ground effect attitude.
⦁ Abrupt and/or excessive elevator control while attempting to level off and accelerate after liftoff.
⦁ Allowing the airplane to "mush" or settle resulting in an inadvertant touchdown after lift-off.
⦁ Attempting to climb our of ground effect area before attaining sufficient climb speed.
⦁ Failure to anticipate an increase in pitch attitude as the airplane climbs our of ground effect.
Rejected Takeoff/Engine Failure
Emergency or abnormal situations can occur during a takeoff that require a pilot to reject the takeoff while still on the runway.
Circumstances such as a malfunctioning powerplant, inadequate acceleration, runway incursion, or air traffic conflict may be reasons
for a rejected takeoff.
Prior to takeoff, the pilot should identify a point along the runway at which the airplane should be airborne. If that point is reached
and the airplane is not airborne, immediate action should be taken to discontinue the takeoff. When properly planned and executed,
the airplane can be stopped on the remaining runway without using extraordinary measures, such as excessive braking that may result
in loss of directional control, airplane damage, and/or personal injury. The POH/AFM ground roll distances for take-off and landing
added together provide a good estimate of the total runway needed to accelerate and then stop.
In the event a takeoff is rejected, the power is reduced to idle and maximum braking applied while maintaining directional control. If
it is necessary to shut down the engine due to a fire, the mixture control should be brought to the idle cutoff position and the magnetos
turned off. In all cases, the manufacturer’s emergency procedure should be followed.
Urgency characterizes all power loss or engine failure occurrences after lift-off. In most instances, the pilot has only a few seconds
after an engine failure to decide what course of action to take and to execute it.
In the event of an engine failure on initial climb- out, the pilot’s first responsibility is to maintain aircraft control. At a climb pitch
attitude without power, the airplane is at or near a stalling AOA. At the same time, the pilot may still be holding right rudder. The
pilot should immediately lower the nose to prevent a stall while moving the rudder to ensure coordinated flight. The pilot should
establish a controlled glide toward a plausible landing area, preferably straight ahead. Attempting to turn back to the takeoff runway
should not be attempted unless the pilot previously trained for an emergency turn-back and sufficient altitude exists.
Noise Abatement
Aircraft noise problems are a major concern at many airports throughout the country. Many local communities have pressured
airports into developing specific operational procedures that help limit aircraft noise while operating over nearby areas. As a result,
noise abatement procedures have been developed for many of these airports that include standardized profiles and procedures t o
achieve these lower noise goals.
Airports that have noise abatement procedures provide information to pilots, operators, air carriers, air traffic facilities, and other
special groups that are applicable to their airport. These procedures are available to the aviation community by various means. Most
of this information comes from the Chart Supplements, local and regional publications, printed handouts, operator bulletin boards,
safety briefings, and local air traffic facilities.
At airports that use noise abatement procedures, reminder signs may be installed at the taxiway hold positions for applicable runways
to remind pilots to use and comply with noise abatement procedures on departure. Pilots who are unfamiliar with these procedures
should ask the tower or air traffic facility for the recommended procedures. In any case, pilots should be considerate of the
surrounding community while operating their airplane to and from such an airport. This includes operating as quietly, and safely as
possible.
Chapter Summary
The takeoff and initial climb are relatively short phases required for every flight and are often taken for granted, yet 1 out of 5
accidents occur during this phase and half the mishaps are the result of pilot error. Becoming proficient in and applying the
techniques and principles discussed in this chapter help pilots reduce their susceptibility to becoming a mishap statistic.