For the maneuver to be executed properly, the pilot should visually utilize the ground-based, nose, and wingtip references to properly
position the airplane in attitude and in orientation to the rectangular course. In order to maintain a constant ground-based radius
during the turns, each turn requires the bank angle to be adjusted to compensate for the changing groundspeed —the higher the
groundspeed, the steeper the bank. If the groundspeed is initially higher and then decreases throughout the turn, the bank angle should
progressively decrease throughout the turn. The converse is also true, if the groundspeed is initially slower and then increases
throughout the turn, the bank angle should progressively increase throughout the turn until rollout is started. Also, the rate for rolling
in and out of the turn should be adjusted to prevent drifting in or out of the course. When the wind is from a direction that could drift
the airplane into the course, the banking roll rate should be slow. When the wind is from a direction that could drift the airplane to the
outside of the course, the banking roll rate should be quick.
The following are the most common errors made while performing rectangular courses:
1. Failure to adequately clear the surrounding area for safety hazards, initially and throughout the maneuver.
2. Failure to establish a constant, level altitude prior to entering the maneuver.
3. Failure to maintain altitude during the maneuver.
4. Failure to properly assess wind direction.
5. Failure to establish the appropriate wind correction angle.
6. Failure to apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressure, resulting in slips and skids.
7. Failure to manipulate the flight controls in a smooth and continuous manner.
8. Failure to properly divide attention between airplane control and orientation with ground references.
9. Failure to execute turns with accurate timing.
Turns Around a Point
Turns around a point are a logical extension of both the rectangular course and S- turns across a road. The maneuver is a 360°
constant radius turn around a single ground-based reference point. [Figure 7-5] The principles are the same in any turning ground
reference maneuver—higher groundspeeds require steeper banks and slower ground speeds require shallower banks. The objectives
of turns around a point are as follows:
⦁ Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground.
⦁ Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-based references, manipulating the flight controls, and
scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications.
⦁ Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for groundspeed changes in order to maintain a constant
adius turn—steeper bank angles for higher ground speeds, shallow bank angles for slower groundspeeds.
⦁ Improving competency in managing the quickly-changing bank angles.
⦁ Establishing and adjusting the wind correction angle in order to maintain the track over the ground.
⦁ Developing the ability to compensate for drift in quickly-changing orientations.
⦁ Developing further awareness that the radius of a turn is correlated to the bank angle.
To perform a turn around a point, the pilot needs to complete at least one 360° turn; however, to properly assess wind direction,
velocity, bank required, and other factors related to turns in wind, the pilot should complete two or more turns. As in other ground
reference maneuvers, when wind is present, the pilot adjusts the airplane’s bank and wind correction angle to maintain a cons tant
radius turn around a point. In contrast to the ground reference maneuvers discussed previously, in which turns were approximately
limited to either 90° or 180°, turns around a point are consecutive 360° turns, where pilot constantly adjusts the bank angle and the
resulting rate of turn as the airplane sequences through the various wind directions. The pilot should make these adjustments by
applying coordinated aileron and rudder pressure throughout the turn.
Figure 7-5. Turns around a point.
When performing a turn around a point, the pilot should select a prominent, ground-based reference that is easily distinguishable yet
small enough to present a precise reference. The pilot should enter the maneuver downwind, where the groundspeed is at its fastest, at
the appropriate radius of turn and distance from the selected ground-based reference point. In a high-wing airplane, the lowered wing
may block the view of the ground reference point, especially in airplanes with side- by-side seating during a left turn (assuming that
the pilot is flying from the left seat). To prevent this, the pilot may need to change the maneuvering altitude or the desired turn radius.
The pilot should ensure that the reference point is visible at all times throughout the maneuver, even with the wing lowered in a bank.
Upon entering the maneuver, depending on the wind’s speed, it may be necessary to roll into the initial bank at a rapid rate so that the
steepest bank is set quickly to prevent the airplane from drifting outside of the desired turn radius. This is best accomplished by
repeated practice and assessing the required roll in rate. Thereafter, the pilot should gradually decrease the angle of bank until the
airplane is headed directly upwind. As the upwind becomes a crosswind and then a downwind, the pilot should gradually steepen the
bank to the steepest angle upon reaching the initial point of entry.
During the downwind half of the turn, the pilot should progressively adjust the airplane’s heading toward the inside of the t urn.
During the upwind half, the pilot should progressively adjust the airplane’s heading toward the outside of the turn. Put another way,
the airplane’s heading should be ahead of its position over the ground during the downwind half of the turn and behind its position
during the upwind half. Remember that the goal is to make a constant-radius turn over the ground and, because the airplane is flying
through a moving air mass, the pilot should constantly adjust the bank angle to achieve this goal.
The following are the most common errors in the performance of turns around a point:
1. Failure to adequately clear the surrounding area for safety hazards, initially and throughout the maneuver.
2. Failure to establish a constant, level altitude prior to entering the maneuver.
3. Failure to maintain altitude during the maneuver.
4. Failure to properly assess wind direction.
5. Failure to properly execute constant-radius turns.
6. Failure to manipulate the flight controls in a smooth and continuous manner.
7. Failure to establish the appropriate wind correction angle.
8. Failure to apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressure, resulting in slips or skids.
S-Turns
An S-turn is a ground reference maneuver in which the airplane’s ground track resembles two opposite but equal half -circles on each
side of a selected ground-based straight-line reference. [Figure 7-6] This ground reference maneuver presents a practical application
for the correction of wind during a turn. The objectives of S-turns across a road (or line) are as follows:
⦁ Maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the ground.
⦁ Dividing attention between the flightpath, ground-based references, manipulating the flight controls, and
scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications.
⦁ Adjusting the bank angle during turns to correct for groundspeed changes in order to maintain a constant-
radius turn—steeper bank angles for higher groundspeeds, shallow bank angles for slower groundspeeds.
⦁ Rolling out from a turn with the required wind correction angle to compensate for any drift cause by the
wind.
⦁ Establishing and correcting the wind correction angle in order to maintain the track over the ground.
⦁ Developing the ability to compensate for drift in quickly-changing orientations.
⦁ Arriving at specific points on required headings.
Figure 7-6. S-turns.
With the airplane in the downwind position, the maneuver consists of crossing a straight-line ground reference at a 90° angle and
immediately beginning a 180° constant-radius turn. The pilot will then adjust the roll rate and bank angle for drift effects and changes
in groundspeed, and re-cross the straight-line ground reference in the opposite direction just as the first 180° constant-radius turn is
completed. The pilot will then immediately begin a second 180° constant-radius turn in the opposite direction, adjusting the roll rate
and bank angle for drift effects and changes in groundspeed, again re-crossing the straight-line ground reference as the second 180°
constant-radius turn is completed. If the straight-line ground reference is of sufficient length, the pilot may complete as many as can
be safely accomplished.
In the same manner as the rectangular course, it is standard practice to enter ground-based maneuvers downwind where groundspeed
is greatest. As such, the roll into the turn should be rapid, but not aggressive, and the angle of bank should be steepest when initiating
the turn. As the turn progresses, the bank angle and the rate of rollout should be decreased as the groundspeed decreases to ensure
that the turn’s radius is constant. During the first turn, when the airplane is at the 90° point, it will be directly crosswind. In addition to
the rate of rollout and bank angle, the pilot should control the wind correction angle throughout the turn.
Controlling the wind correction angle during a turn can be complex to understand. The concept may be understood by comprehending
the difference between the number of degrees that the airplane has turned over the ground versus the number of degrees that the
airplane has turned in the air. As an example, assume the airplane is exactly crosswind, meaning directly at a point that is 90° to the
straight-lined ground reference. In this example, if the wind requires a 10° wind correction angle (for this example, this is a left turn
with the crosswind from the left), the airplane would be at a heading that is 10° ahead when directly over the 90° ground reference
point. In other words, the first 90° track over the ground would result in a heading change of 100° and the last 90° track over the
ground would result in 80° of heading change.
As the turn progresses from a downwind position to an upwind position, the pilot should gradually decrease the bank angle wit h
coordinated aileron and rudder pressure. The pilot should reference the airplane’s nose, wingtips, and the ground references and
adjust the rollout timing so that the wings become level just as the airplane crosses the straight-line ground reference at the proper
heading, altitude, and airspeed. As the airplane re-crosses the straight-lined ground reference, the opposite turn begins —there should
be no delay in rolling out from one turn and rolling into the next turn. Because the airplane is now upwind, the roll in should be
smooth and gentle and the initial bank angle should be shallow. As the turn progresses, the wind changes from upwind, to crosswind,
to downwind. In a similar manner described above, the pilot should adjust the bank angle to correct for changes in groundspeed. As
the groundspeed increases, the pilot should increase the bank angle to maintain a constant-radius turn over the ground. At the 90 °
crosswind position, the airplane should also have the correct wind correction angle. As the airplane turns downwind and the
groundspeed increases, the bank angle should be increased so that the rate of turn maintains a constant-radius turn.
The following are the most common errors made while performing S-turns across a road:
1. Failure to adequately clear surrounding area for safety hazards, initially and throughout the maneuver.
2. Failure to establish a constant, level altitude prior to entering the maneuver.
3. Failure to maintain altitude during the maneuver.
4. Failure to properly assess wind direction.
5. Failure to properly execute constant-radius turns.
6. Failure to manipulate the flight controls in a smooth and continuous manner when transitioning into turns.
7. Failure to establish the appropriate wind correction angle.
8. Failure to apply coordinated aileron and rudder pressure, resulting in slips or skids.
Elementary Eights
Elementary eights are a family of maneuvers in which each individual maneuver is one that the airplane tracks a path over the ground
similar to the shape of a figure eight. There are various types of eights, progressing from the elementary to advanced types. Each eight
is intended to develop a pilot’s flight control coordination skills, strengthen their awareness relative to the selected ground references,
and enhance division of attention so that flying becomes more instinctive than mechanical. Eights require a greater degree of focused
attention to the selected ground references; however, the real significance of eights is that the pilot develops the ability to fly with
precision.
Elementary eights include eights along a road, eights across a road, and eights around pylons. Each of these maneuvers is a variation
of a turn around a point. Each eight uses two ground reference points about which the airplane turns first in one direction and then the
opposite direction—like a figure eight.
Eights maneuvers are designed for the following purposes:
⦁ Further development of the pilot’s skill in maintaining a specific relationship between the airplane and the
ground references.
⦁ Improving the pilot’s ability to divide attention between the flightpath and ground-based references,
manipulation of the flight controls, and scanning for outside hazards and instrument indications during both
turning and straight-line flight.
⦁ Developing the pilot’s skills to visualize each specific segment of the maneuver and the maneuver as a
whole, prior to execution.
⦁ Developing a pilot’s ability to intuitively manipulate flight controls to adjust the bank angle during turns to
correct for groundspeed changes in order to maintain constant-radius turns and proper ground track between
ground references.
Eights Along a Road
An eight along a road is a ground reference maneuver in which the ground track consists of two opposite 360° adjacent turns. An
imaginary line drawn through the center of each 360° turn is perpendicular to the straight-line ground reference (road, railroad tracks,
fence line, pipeline right- of-way, etc.) as illustrated in Figure 7-7. Like the other ground reference maneuvers, the objective is to
further develop division of attention while compensating for drift, maintaining orientation with ground references, and maintaining a
constant altitude.
Figure 7-7. Eights along a road.
Although eights along a road may be performed with the wind blowing parallel or perpendicular to the straight-line ground reference,
only the perpendicular wind situation is explained since the principles involved are common to each. The pilot should select a
straight-line ground reference that is perpendicular to the wind and position the airplane parallel to and directly above the straight-line
ground reference. Since this places the airplane in a crosswind position, the pilot should compensate for the wind drift with an
appropriate wind correction angle.
The following description is illustrated in Figure 7-7. The airplane is initially in a crosswind position, perpendicular to the wind, and
over the ground-based reference. The first turn should be to the right toward a downwind position starting with a steepening bank.
When the entry is made into the turn, it requires that the turn begin with a medium bank and gradually steepen to its maximum bank
angle when the airplane is directly downwind. As the airplane turns from downwind to crosswind, the bank angle needs to be
gradually reduced since groundspeed is decreasing; however, 1/2 of the reduction in groundspeed occurs during the first 2/3 of the
turn from downwind to crosswind.
The pilot needs to control the bank angle as well as the rate at which the bank angle is reduced so that the wind correction angle is
correct. Assuming that the wind is coming from the right side of the airplane, the airplane heading should be slightly ahead of its
position over the ground. When the airplane completes the first 180° of ground track, it is directly crosswind, and the airplane should
be at the maximum wind correction angle.
As the turn is continued toward the upwind, the airplane’s groundspeed is decreasing, which requires the pilot to reduce the bank
angle to slow the rate of turn. If the pilot does not reduce the bank angle, the continued high rate of turn would cause the turn to be
completed prematurely. Another way to explain this effect is —the wind is drifting the airplane downwind at the same time its
groundspeed is slowing. If the airplane has a steeper-than-required bank angle, its rate of turn will be too fast and the airplane will
complete the turn before it has had time to return to the ground reference.
When the airplane is directly upwind, which is at 270° into the first turn, the bank angle should be shallow with no wind correction.
As the airplane turns crosswind again, the airplane’s groundspeed begins increasing; therefore, the pilot should adjust the b ank angle
and corresponding rate of turn proportionately in order to reach the ground reference at the completion of the 360° ground track. The
pilot may vary the bank angle to correct for any previous errors made in judging the returning rate and closure rate. The pilot should
time the rollout so that the airplane is straight-and-level over the starting point with enough drift correction to hold it over the straight-
line ground reference. Assuming that the wind is now from the left, the airplane should be banked at a left wind correction angle.
After momentarily flying straight-and-level with the established wind correction, along the ground reference, the pilot should roll the
airplane into a medium bank-turn in the opposite direction to begin the 360° turn on the upwind side of the ground reference. The
wind will decrease the airplane’s groundspeed and drift the airplane back toward the ground reference; therefore, the pilot s hould
decrease the bank slowly during the first 90° of the upwind turn in order to establish a constant radius. During the next 90° of turn,
the pilot should increase the bank angle, since the groundspeed is increasing, to maintain a constant radius and establish the proper
wind correction angle before reaching the 180° upwind position.
As the remaining 180° of turn continues, the wind becomes a tailwind and then a crosswind. Consistent with previous downwind and
crosswind descriptions, the pilot should increase the bank angle as the airplane reaches the downwind position and decrease the bank
angle as the airplane reaches the crosswind position. Further, the rate of roll-in and roll-out should be consistent with how fast the
groundspeed changes during the turn. Remember, when turning from an upwind or downwind position to a crosswind position, 1/2 of
the groundspeed change occurs during the first 2/3 of the 90° turn. The final 1/2 of the change in groundspeed occurs during the last
1/3 of the turn. In contrast, when turning from a crosswind position to an upwind or downwind position, the first 1/2 of the
groundspeed change occurs during the first 1/3 of the 90° turn. The final 1/2 of the change in groundspeed occurs during the last 2/3
of the turn.
To successfully perform eights along a ground reference, the pilot should be able to smoothly and accurately coordinate changes in
bank angle to maintain a constant-radius turn and counteract drift. The speed in which the pilot can anticipate these corrections
directly affects the accuracy of the overall maneuver and the amount of attention that can be directed toward scanning for outside
hazards and instrument indications.
Eights Across a Road
This maneuver is a variation of eights along a road and involves the same principles and techniques. The primary difference is that at
the completion of each loop of the figure eight, the airplane should cross an intersection or a specific ground reference point. [Figure
7-8]
Figure 7-8. Eights across a road.
The loops should be across the road and the wind should be perpendicular to the loops. Each time the reference is crossed, th e
crossing angle should be the same, and the wings of the airplane should be level. The eights may also be performed by rolling from
one bank immediately to the other, directly over the reference.