Aviation Instructor's Handbook (FAA-H-8083-9)
Chapter 9: Techniques of Flight Instruction
Introduction
Flight instructor Daniel decides his learner, Mary, has gained enough confidence and experience that it is time for her to develop
personal weather minimums. While researching the subject at the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) website, he locates several
sources that provide background information indicating that weather often poses some of the greatest risks to general aviation (GA)
pilots, regardless of their experience level. He also finds charts and a lesson plan he can use.
Daniel’s decision to help Mary develop personal weather minimums reflects a key component of the flight instructor’s job: providing
the learner with the tools to ensure safety during a flight. What does “safety” really mean? How can a flight instructor ensure the
safety of flight training activities, and also train clients to operate their aircraft safely after they leave the relatively protected flight
training environment?
According to one definition, safety is the freedom from conditions that can cause death, injury, or illness; damage to loss o f
equipment or property, or damage to the environment. FAA regulations are intended to promote safety by eliminating or mitigating
conditions that can cause death, injury, or damage. These regulations are comprehensive but instructors recognize that even the
strictest compliance with regulations may not guarantee safety. Rules and regulations are designed to address known or suspected
conditions detrimental to safety, but there is always the possibility that a combination of hazardous circumstances will arise.
The recognition of aviation training and flight operations as a system led to a “system approach” to aviation safety. This chapter
discusses some of the practices found to make flight safer on a systemic basis including —aeronautical decision-making (ADM), risk
management, situational awareness, and single-pilot resource management (SRM). These components should be included in a modern
flight training program.
Practical Flight Instructor Strategies
During all phases of flight training, instructors should remember that individuals learn through observing others; therefore, the
instructor needs to model safe and professional behavior. The flight instructor should demonstrate good operational sense at all times:
⦁ Before the flight—discuss safety and the importance of a proper preflight and use of the checklist.
⦁ During flight—prioritize the tasks of aviating, navigating, and communicating. Instill importance of aircraft
control, “see and avoid,” situational awareness, and workload management in the learner.
⦁ During landing—co nduct stabilized approaches, maintain desired airspeed on final, demonstrate good
judgment for go-arounds, wake turbulence, traffic, and terrain avoidance. Correct faulty approaches and
landings. Make touchdowns on the centerline in the first third of the runway.
⦁ After the flight—review or discuss flight events and choices using ADM principles. Plan a remediation
if trends indicate an inadequate skill, a hazardous attitude, or inadequate knowledge of risk mitigation.
Flight instructors should produce safe pilots. For that reason, instructors should encourage each learner to learn as much as possible.
When introducing lesson tasks, flight instructors should not focus on the minimum acceptable standards for passing the checkride.
The ACS/PTS is not a teaching tool. It is a testing tool. The overall focus of flight training should be on education, learning, and
understanding why the standards are there and how they were set. The completion standards for each lesson should gradually reach or
exceed those in the ACS/PTS before final preparation for the checkride.
Integrating Instruction Techniques
A flight instructor uses many instructional techniques during ground instruction, when using simulation, and during hands-on aircraft
training. Since flight training costs are high and new aircraft are more complex than in the past, the total training experience should
provide a solid base of knowledge and maximize the learner’s time without sacrificing the quality of the end product. This section
looks at teaching techniques in greater detail.
Ground Instruction
Ground instruction can be highly effective if it follows an overall plan designed to prepare the learner for flight. In Chapter 7,
Planning Instructional Activity, Figure 7-2 shows a ground lesson that includes clear objectives. However, ground training
objectives should be related to flight training objectives whenever possible. When elements are taught on the ground (as theory),
their practice and application is also experienced in the air. The instructor should point out the connection between the theory and
practice to maximize the benefit from integrated ground and flight instruction. [Figure 9-1]
Additionally, ground instruction need not be in the classroom for maximum effectiveness. For example, conduct a preflight using an
actual aircraft although initially taught in an academic setting. Additionally, when airspace is being taught an invaluable
reinforcement of training includes taking the learners to ATC facilities where they can see management of the National Airspa ce
System (NAS) from another perspective.
Figure 9-1. The learner prepares to execute a power-off stall maneuver in-flight that was taught in ground school.
Studies have shown that a mix of instructional elements provides the best balance during ground instruction. Learners who use
electronic media extensively are generally not as well trained as those who receive a balanced mix of ground teaching methods that
include e-learning, class, and one- on-one instruction integrated with technological tools that support the instruction versus replacing
it.
Ground instruction is a key element that sets the foundation and is critical to learner pilots becoming well educated and successfully
transitioning into the flight environment. It should be deliberative, supportive of the learner’s interwoven flight education, and highly
rewarding to both the learner and instructor(s) alike.
Use of Flight Simulation Training Devices
The FAA separates flight simulation trainers into three specific categories:
⦁ Full Flight Simulator (FFS)
⦁ Flight Training Device (FTD)
⦁ Aviation Training Device (ATD)
The National Simulator Program located in Atlanta, GA provides for the evaluation and qualification of FFSs and FTDs. 14 CFR part
60 provides the criteria for the qualification of FFSs [Figure 9-2] and FTDs [Figures 9-3 and 9-4] and further divides these
qualifications as FFS Level A-D and FTD Level 4-7. A qualification letter is provided annually by the FAA to the operator and
identifies the level of qualification. The level of approval affects what maneuvers or tasks may be accomplished in an FFS or FTD.
These FAA-qualified trainers are collectively described in part 60 as Flight Simulation Training Devices (FSTD). Each device
requires sponsorship by a part 119 certificate holder (part 135/121 operators), or a part 141/142 Pilot School/Training Center, and are
most often used by the airlines or aviation colleges/universities. All training accomplished in FFSs and FTDs is part of an F AA-
approved training program.
Figure 9-2. A Level C simulator.
The General Aviation and Commercial Division located in Washington, DC provides for the evaluation and approval of ATDs.
Advisory Circular AC 61-136, FAA Approval of Aviation Training Devices and Their Use for Training and Experience provides the
criteria for ATD approvals and use, and further divides them into two categories; Basic or Advanced ATD approvals
(BATD/AATD). The letter of authorization provided by the FAA to the manufacturer specifies the training credits or experience
requirements that can be acquired using that model trainer. These training devices are predominately used by general aviation flight
schools providing flight training under 14 CFR part 61 or part 141 regulations. ATDs cannot be used for airman practical tests or type
rating training requirements.
Figure 9-3. An example of a Level 6 Flight Training Device (FTD).
Integrated Training Curricula
An integrated training curriculum can use an FFS, FTD, or ATD to provide seamless training from the classroom to the aircraft. An
instructor initially provides the required knowledge in a classroom environment and then follows with procedural training in the
simulator. For example, when utilizing an integrated ground and flight-training program, an authorized instructor would initially teach
the required knowledge specific to instrument landing system (ILS) design, and the associated flight operations through ground and
classroom training. The instructor then provides instruction on aircraft flight procedures and details specific to operations in national
airspace system. After the learner has gained the required knowledge and understands the procedures, the instructor then adds
practicing the psychomotor skills of the task in the simulator. The instructor would then demonstrate and teach the instrumen t
approach task to the learner simulating the flight environment in a FAA-qualified trainer. When the student becomes proficient with
the instrument procedure in the simulator, the instruction would then transition to the aircraft to verify proficiency and reinforce the
airman certification standards. Most operational tasks and procedures for private pilot certificates, instrument ratings, commercial
pilot certificates, and airline transport pilot certificates can be initially taught in an FFS, FTD, or ATD.
Logging Training Time and Experience
Instructors or pilots logging time in an FFS or FTD should log and record the FAA ID number or serial number of the device b eing
used for training. FSTDs are re-qualified on an annual basis and users should verify the qualification is current and valid. When
logging training time in an ATD, pilot time is logged as a basic aviation training device (BATD) or advanced aviation training device
(AATD) time, and the pilot record should identify the manufacturer and model of the ATD trainer. Letters of authorization (L OAs)
for ATD’s are valid for five years and a copy of the LOA should be retained by the pilot in training.
Pilot time logged in an FFS, FFS, or ATD must be recorded as prescribed in 14 CFR part 61, section 61.51(h). The maximum cre dit
permitted for certificates and ratings is identified in part 61 and 141. However, there is no limit on how much time can be logged in
an FFS, FTD, or ATD. The FAA recommends that training should continue in the simulator until the required tasks are accomplished
successfully, before attempting the same tasks in an aircraft.
Figure 9-4. A level 4 FTD used for procedure training.
On-Aircraft Training
On-aircraft training is the continuation of work that is initiated on the ground and part of the integrated training process. As indicated
in Chapter 7, Planning Instructional Activity, the instructor must plan the flight given to the learner to the same extent as the learner
who prepares for it. Just as it is important to have objectives for ground instruction, it is equally important that the flight instruction
have objectives and a syllabus paired with previous instruction given on the ground (to include academic training). Flight training is
not a one size fits all and often must be tailored for the individual. For example, satisfactory progress in learning stalls through flight
instruction “only” would be diminished as compared to discussing them on the ground; inclusive of the types, stalls, and their
aerodynamic basis. Just because the learner has received ground school instruction on a particular aspect, the instructor should always
review that same task with the learner before flight to reinforce the learning process as necessary. [Figure 9-5]
Figure 9-5. Reinforcing what the learner was taught on the ground is critical to learner knowledge.
On-aircraft training is integrated with ground instruction and not autonomously separate and distinct. By pairing flight and ground
instruction together, the learner will advance further, faster, and attain more of the educational goals the instructor tries to impart.
Demonstration-Performance Training Delivery Method
The demonstration-performance training delivery method was discussed briefly in Chapter 5, The Teaching Process, but the following
in-depth discussion is geared to the flight instructor. This training method has been in use for a long time and is very effective in
teaching kinesthetic skills so flight instructors find it valuable in teaching procedures and maneuvers. The demonstration-performance
method is divided into four phases: explanation, demonstration, learner performance with instructor supervision, and evaluation.
[Figure 9-6]
Explanation Phase
The flight instructor needs to be well prepared and highly organized to teach complex maneuvers and procedures effectively. The
learner should be intellectually and psychologically ready for the learning activity. The explanation phase is accomplished prior to the
flight lesson with a discussion of lesson objectives and completion standards, as well as a thorough preflight briefing. The instructor
presents clear and pertinent objectives of the particular lesson to be presented, based on the known experience and knowledge of the
learner. Instructors need to provide details on the lesson content, performance expectations and evaluation measures. When teaching a
skill, the instructor conveys the precise actions the learner will perform. In addition to the necessary steps, the instructor should
describe the end result of these efforts. The explanation phase also should include coverage of appropriate safety procedures. Before
leaving this phase, the instructor should encourage learners to ask questions about any step of the procedure that they do no t
understand.
Demonstration Phase
The instructor demonstrates the actions necessary to perform a skill and may describe the actions simultaneously. The instructor
avoids extraneous activity as much as possible so that learners get a clear understanding of the task. If, due to some unanticipated
circumstances, the demonstration does not closely conform to the explanation, this deviation should be immediately acknowledged
and explained.
Figure 9-6. The demonstration-performance method of teaching has four essential phases.
Learner Performance and Instruction Supervision Phases
As discussed in Chapter 5, The Teaching Process, these two phases involve separate actions that are performed concurrently. The first
of these phases is the learner’s performance of the physical or mental skills that have been explained and demonstrated. The second
activity is the instructor’s supervision.
Learner performance requires learners to act and do. To gain skills, learners must practice. The instructor must, therefore, allot
enough time for meaningful activity. Through doing, learners can follow correct procedures and reach established standards. It is
important that learners be given an opportunity to perform the skill as soon as possible after a demonstration.
Then, the instructor reviews what has been covered during the instructional flight and determines to what extent the learner has met
the objectives outlined during the preflight discussion. The instructor should be satisfied that the learner is well prepared and
understands the task before starting. The instructor observes as the learner performs, and then makes appropriate comments.
Evaluation Phase
In this phase, the instructor traditionally evaluates learner performance, records the learner’s performance, and verbally advises the
learner of the progress made toward the objectives. Regardless of how well a skill is taught, there may still be performance
deficiencies. When pointing out areas that need improvement, offer concrete suggestions that help. If possible, avoid ending the
evaluation on a negative note.
As discussed in Chapter 6, Assessment, collaborative assessment (or learner centered grading (LCG)) is a form of authentic
assessment currently used in aviation training with problem-based learning (PBL). PBL structures the lessons to confront learners
with problems that are encountered in real life and forces them to reach real-world solutions. Scenario-based training (SBT), a type of
PBL, uses a highly structured script of real-world experiences to address aviation training objectives in an operational environment.
Collaborative assessment is used to evaluate whether certain learning criteria were met during the SBT.
Collaborative assessment includes two parts —learner self-assessment and a detailed assessment by the flight instructor. The purpose
of the self-assessment is to stimulate growth in the learner’s thought processes and, in turn, behaviors. The self-assessment is followed
by an in-depth discussion between the instructor and the learner which compares the instructor ’s assessment to the learner ’s self-
assessment.
The Telling-and-Doing Technique
The demonstration-performance method can be applied to the telling-and-doing technique of flight instruction in three steps.
However, the telling-and-doing technique includes specific variations for flight instruction. [Figure 9-7]
Figure 9-7. This comparison of steps in the teaching process, the demonstration-performance method, and the telling- and-doing
technique highlights similarities as well as differences. The main difference in the telling- and-doing technique is the important
transition, learner tells—instructor does, which occurs between the second and third step.
Instructor Tells—Instructor Does
First, the flight instructor gives a carefully planned demonstration of the procedure or maneuver with accompanying verbal
explanation. While demonstrating inflight maneuvers, the instructor should explain the required power settings, aircraft attitudes, and
describe any other pertinent factors that may apply. This is the only step in which the learner plays a passive role. It is important for
the demonstration to conform to the explanation as closely as possible. In addition, it should be demonstrated in the same sequence in
which it was explained so as to avoid confusion and provide reinforcement. Since learners generally imitate the instructor’s
performance, the instructor needs to demonstrate the skill exactly the way the learners are expected to practice it, including all safety
rocedures that should be followed. As previously explained, if the demonstration does not closely conform to the explanation, this
deviation should be immediately acknowledged and explained.
Most physical skills lend themselves to a sequential pattern where the skill is explained in the same step- by-step order normally used
to perform it. When the skill being taught relates to previously learned procedures or maneuvers, the known to unknown strategy may
be effective. When teaching more than one skill at the same time, the simple- to-complex strategy works well. By starting with the
simplest skill, a learner gains confidence and is less likely to become frustrated when building skills that are more complex.
Another consideration in this phase is the language used. Instructors should attempt to avoid unnecessary jargon and technical terms
that their learners do not know. Instructors should also take care to clearly describe the actions learners are expected to perform.
Communication is the key. It is neither appropriate nor effective for instructors to try to impress learners with their expertise by using
language that is unnecessarily complicated.
As an example, a level turn might be demonstrated and described by the instructor in the following way:
⦁ Use outside visual references and monitor the flight instruments.
⦁ After clearing the airspace around the aircraft, add power slightly, turn the aircraft in the desired direction,
and apply a slight amount of back pressure on the yoke to maintain altitude. Maintain coordinated flight by
applying rudder in the direction of the turn.
⦁ Remember, the ailerons control the roll rate, as well as the angle of bank. The rate at which the aircraft
olls depends on how much aileron deflection is used. How far the aircraft rolls (steepness of the bank)
depends on how long the ailerons are deflected, since the aircraft continues to roll as long as the ailerons
are deflected. When the desired angle of bank is reached, neutralize the ailerons, and trim as appropriate.
⦁ Lead the roll-out by approximately one-half the number of degrees of the angle of bank. Use coordinated
ailer
on and rudder control pressures. Simultaneously begin releasing the back pressure so aileron, rudder,
and elevator pressures are neutralized when the aircraft reaches the wings-level position.
⦁ Leading the roll-out heading by one-half the bank angle is a good rule of thumb for initial training.
Ho
wever, keep in mind that the required amount of lead really depends on the type of turn, turn rate, and
roll-out rate. As a pilot gains experience, he or she will develop a consistent roll-in and roll-out technique
for various types of turns. Upon reaching a wings-level attitude, reduce power and trim to remove control
pressures.