Learner Tells—Instructor Does
Second, the learner tells as the instructor does. In this step, the learner actually plays the role of instructor, telling the instructor what
to do and how to do it. Two benefits accrue from this step: the learner, being freed from the need to concentrate on performance of
the maneuver and from concern about its outcome, is able to organize his or her thoughts regarding the steps involved and the
techniques to be used. In the process of explaining the maneuver as the instructor performs it, perceptions begin to develop into
insights. Mental habits begin to form with repetition of the instructions previously received. Plus, the instructor is able to evaluate the
learner’s understanding of the factors involved in performance of the maneuver.
According to the principle of primacy, it is important for the instructor to make sure the learner gets it right the first time. The learner
should also understand the correct sequence and be aware of safety precautions for each procedure or maneuver. If a
misunderstanding exists, it can be corrected before the learner becomes absorbed in controlling the aircraft.
Learner Tells—Learner Does
Application is the third step in this method. This is where learning takes place and where performance habits are formed. If the
learner has been adequately prepared and the procedure or maneuver fully explained and demonstrated, meaningful learning occurs.
The instructor should be alert during the learner’s practice to detect any errors in technique and to prevent the formation of faulty
At the same time, the learner should be encouraged to think about what to do during the performance of a maneuver, until it becomes
habitual. In this step, the thinking is done verbally. This focuses concentration on the task to be accomplished, so that total
involvement in the maneuver is fostered. All of the learner’s physical and mental faculties are brought into play. The instructor should
be aware of the learner’s thought processes. It is easy to determine whether an error is induced by a misconception or by a simple lack
of motor skills. Therefore, in addition to forcing total concentration on the part of the learner, this method provides a means for
keeping the instructor aware of what the learner is thinking. The learner is not only learning to do something, but he or she is also
learning a self-teaching process that is highly desirable in development of a skill.
The exact procedures that the instructor should use during learner practice depend on factors such as the learner’s proficiency level,
the type of maneuver, and the stage of training. The instructor should exercise good judgment to decide how much control to use.
With potentially hazardous or difficult maneuvers, the instructor should be alert and ready to take control at any time. This is
especially true during a learner’s first attempt at a particular maneuver. On the other hand, if a learner is progressing normally, the
instructor should avoid unnecessary interruptions or too much assistance.
A typical test of how much control is needed often occurs during a learner’s first few attempts to land an aircraft. The instructor must
quickly evaluate the learner’s need for help, and not hesitate to take control, if required. At the same time, the learner should be
allowed to practice the entire maneuver often enough to achieve the level of proficiency established in the lesson objectives. Since
this is a learning phase rather than an evaluation phase of the training, errors or unsafe practices should be identified and corrected in
a positive and timely way. In some cases, the learner is not able to meet the proficiency level specified in the lesson objectives within
the allotted time. When this occurs, the instructor should be prepared to schedule additional training.
Positive Exchange of Flight Controls
Positive exchange of flight controls is an integral part of flight training. It is especially critical during the demonstrati on-performance
method of flight instruction. Due to the importance of this subject, the following discussion provides guidance on the recommended
procedure to use for the positive exchange of flight controls between pilots when operating an aircraft.
Background
Incident/accident statistics indicate a need to place additional emphasis on the exchange of control of an aircraft by pilots. Numerous
accidents have occurred due to a lack of communication or misunderstanding regarding who had actual control of the aircraft,
particularly between learners and flight instructors. Establishing the following procedure during initial training will ensure the
formation of a habit pattern that should stay with learners throughout their flying careers.
Procedure
During flight training, there should always be a clear understanding between learners and flight instructors about who has control of
the aircraft. The preflight briefing should include procedures for the exchange of flight controls. A positive three-step process in the
exchange of flight controls between pilots is a proven procedure and one that is strongly recommended. When an instructor is
teaching a maneuver to a learner, the instructor normally demonstrates the maneuver first, then has the learner follow along on the
controls during a demonstration and, finally, the learner performs the maneuver with the instructor following along on the controls.
[Figure 9-8]
Flight instructors should always guard the controls and be prepared to take control of the aircraft. When necessary, the instructor
should take the controls and calmly announce, “I have the flight controls.” If an instructor allows a learner to remain on the controls,
the instructor may not have full and effective control of the aircraft. Anxious learners can be incredibly strong and usually exhibit
reactions inappropriate to the situation. If a recovery is necessary, there is absolutely nothing to be gained by having the learner on the
controls and having to fight for control of the aircraft. Learners should never be allowed to exceed the flight instructor’s limits. Flight
instructors should not exceed their own ability to perceive a problem, decide upon a course of action, and physically react within their
ability to fly the aircraft.
Figure 9-8. During this procedure, a visual check is recommended to see that the other person actually has the flight controls. When
returning the controls to the instructor, the learner should follow the same procedure the instructor used when giving control to the
learner. The learner should stay on the controls and keep flying the aircraft until the instructor says, “I have the flight controls.”
There should never be any doubt about who is flying the aircraft.
Sterile Flight Deck Rule
Commonly known as the “sterile flight deck rule,” Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations (14 CFR) part 121, section
121.542 requires airline flight crewmembers to refrain from nonessential activities during critical phases of flight. As defined in the
regulation, critical phases of flight are all ground operations involving taxi, takeoff, and landing, and all other flight operations below
10,000 feet except cruise flight. Nonessential activities include such activities as eating, reading a newspaper, or chatting. A series of
aircraft accidents caused by flight crews who were distracted from their flight duties during critical phases of the flight caused the
FAA to propose the rule. While the regulation grew out of accidents in the airline industry, it holds true for the entire aviation
community. Pilots can improve flight safety significantly by reducing distractions during critical phases of flight. It is important the
flight instructor not only teach the concept of a sterile flight deck but also model such behavior during flight instruction.
Use of Distractions
National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) statistics reveal that most stall/spin accidents occurred when the pilot’s attention was
diverted from the primary task of flying the aircraft. Sixty percent of stall/spin accidents occurred during takeoff and lan ding, and
twenty percent were preceded by engine failure. Preoccupation inside or outside the flight deck while changing aircraft configuration
or trim, maneuvering to avoid other traffic, or clearing hazardous obstacles during takeoff and climb could create a potential stall/spin
situation. The intentional practice of stalls and spins seldom resulted in an accident. The real danger was inadvertent stalls induced by
distractions during routine flight situations.
Pilots at all skill levels should be aware of the increased risk of entering into an inadvertent stall or spin or the possibility of an upset
while performing tasks that are secondary to controlling the aircraft. The FAA has established a policy for use of certain distractions
on practical tests for pilot certification. The purpose is to determine that applicants possess the skills required to cope with
distractions while maintaining the degree of aircraft control required for safe flight. The most effective training is the simulation of
scenarios that can lead to inadvertent stalls by creating distractions while the learner is practicing certain maneuvers.
Instructor responsibilit ies includ e teaching th e learner to divid e his or her attention between th e distracting task and maintaining
control of the aircraft. The following are examples of distractions that can be used for this training:
⦁ Drop a pencil. Ask the learner to pick it up.
⦁ Ask the learner to determine a heading to an airport using a chart.
⦁ Ask the learner to reset the clock.
⦁ Ask the learner to get something from the back seat.
⦁ Ask the learner to read the outside air temperature.
⦁ Ask the learner to compute true airspeed with a flight computer.
⦁ Ask the learner to identify terrain or objects on the ground.
⦁ Ask the learner to identify a field suitable for a forced landing.
⦁ Have the learner climb 200 feet and maintain altitude, then descend 200 feet and maintain altitude.
⦁ Have the learner reverse course after a series of S-turns.
It is a flight instructor’s responsibility to teach the learner how to take charge during a flight. A pilot in command (PIC) must know
when to tell any passengers, even a Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE), when the PIC finds actions in the aircraft that distract and
interfere with the safe conduct of the flight.
Integrated Flight Instruction
Integrated flight instruction is flight instruction during which learners are taught to perform flight maneuvers both by outside visual
references and by reference to flight instruments. For this type of instruction to be fully effective, the use of instrument references
should begin the first time each new maneuver is introduced. No distinction in the pilot’s operation of the flight controls is permitted,
regardless of whether outside references or instrument indications are used for the performance of the maneuver. When this training
technique is used, instruction in the control of an aircraft by outside visual references is integrated with instruction in the use of flight
instrument indications for the same operations.
Development of Habit Patterns
It important for the learner to establish the habit of observing and relying on flight instruments from the beginning of flight training. It
is equally important for the learner to learn the feel and sounds of the airplane while conducting maneuvers, such as being able to
sense when the airplane is out of trim or in a nose-high or nose-low attitude. Learners who have performed all normal flight
maneuvers by reference to instruments, as well as by outside references, develop the habit of continuously monitoring their own and
the aircraft’s performance. The early establishment of the habits of instrument cross -check, instrument interpretation, and aircraft
control is highly useful to the learner. The habitual attention to instrument indications leads to improved landings because of more
precise airspeed control. Effective use of instruments also results in superior cross-country navigation, better coordination, and
generally, a better overall pilot competency level.
General aviation accident reports provide ample support for the belief that reference to flight instruments is important to safety. The
safety record of pilots who hold instrument ratings is significantly better than that of pilots with comparable flight time who have
never received formal flight training for an instrument rating. Pilots in training who are asked to perform all normal flight maneuvers
by reference to instruments, as well as by outside references, will develop the habit of continuously monitoring their own and the
aircraft’s performance. . The habits formed at this time also give the learner a firm foundation for later training for an instrument
rating.
Operating Efficiency
As learners become more proficient in monitoring and correcting their own flight technique by reference to flight instruments, the
performance obtained from an aircraft increases noticeably. This is particularly true of modern, complex, or high-performance
aircraft, which are responsive to the use of correct operating airspeeds.
The use of correct power settings and climb speeds and the accurate control of headings during climbs result in a measurable increase
in climb performance. Holding precise headings and altitudes in cruising flight definitely increases average cruising performance.
The use of integrated flight instruction provides the learner with the ability to control an aircraft in flight for limited periods if outside
references are lost. In an emergency, this ability could save the pilot’s life and those of the passengers.
During the conduct of integrated flight training, the flight instructor needs to impress on the learners and ascertain they understand
that the introduction to the use of flight instruments does not prepare them for operations in marginal weather or instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC). According to NTSB accident data, inflight encounters with weather (attempting VFR flight int o
IMC) is one of the most common causes of fatalities.
Procedures
Integrated flight instruction begins with the first briefing on the function of the flight controls. This briefing includes the instrument
indications to be expected, as well as the outside references to be used to control the attitude of the aircraft.
Each new flight maneuver is introduced using both outside and instrument references with learners developing the ability to maneuver
an aircraft equally as well by instrument or outside references. They naturally accept the fact that the manipulation of the flight
controls is identical, regardless of which references are used to determine the attitude of the aircraft. This practice should continue
throughout the flight instruction for all maneuvers. To fully achieve the demonstrated benefits of this type of training, the use of visual
and instrument references must be constantly integrated throughout the training. Failure to do so lengthens the flight instruction
necessary for the learner to achieve the competency required for a private pilot certificate.
See and Avoid
From the start of flight training, the instructor ensures learners develop the habit of looking for other air traffic at all times. If learners
believe the instructor assumes all responsibility for scanning and collision avoidance procedures, they do not develop the habit of
maintaining a constant vigilance, which is essential to safety. Any observed tendency of a learner to enter flight maneuvers without
first making a careful check for other air traffic needs to be corrected immediately. Recent studies of midair collisions determined
that:
⦁ Flight instructors were onboard the aircraft in 37 percent of the accidents in the study.
⦁ Most of the aircraft involved in collisions are engaged in recreational flying not on any type of flight plan.
⦁ Most midair collisions occur in VFR weather conditions during weekend daylight hours.
⦁ The vast majority of accidents occurred at or near nontowered airports and at altitudes below 1,000 feet.
⦁ Pilots of all experience levels were involved in midair collisions, from pilots on their first solo, to 20,000
our veterans.
⦁ Most collisions occur in daylight with visibility greater than 3 miles.
It is imperative to introduce 14 CFR part 91, section 91.113 “right-of-way” rules to the learner. Practice the “see and avoid” concept
at all times regardless of whether the training is conducted under VFR or instrument flight rules (IFR). For more information on how
to reduce the odds of becoming involved in a midair collision, see Advisory Circular 90-48 (as amended).
Assessment of Piloting Ability
Assessment is an essential component of the teaching process and determines how, what, and how well a learner is learning. A well-
designed assessment provides a learner with something constructive upon which he or she can work or build. An assessment should
provide direction and guidance to raise the level of performance. Learners must understand the purpose of the assessment; otherwise,
they will be unlikely to accept the evaluation offered and little improvement will result. There are many types of assessment but the
flight instructor generally uses the review, collaborative assessment (LCG), written tests, and performance-based tests to ascertain
knowledge or practical skill levels. Refer to Chapter 6 for an in-depth discussion of the types of assessment available to the flight
instructor.
An assessment can also be used as a tool for reteaching. Although not all assessments lend themselves to reteaching, the instructor
should be alert to the possibility and take advantage of the opportunity when it arises. If the instructor observes a deficiency and
determines a task needs reteaching, the instructor demonstrates the maneuver, allows the learner to practice the maneuver under
direction, and finally evaluates learner accomplishment by observing the performance.
Demonstrated Ability
Assessment of demonstrated ability during flight instruction must be based upon established standards of performance, suitabl y
modified to apply to the learner’s experience and stage of development as a pilot. The assessment must consider the learner’s mastery
of the elements involved in the maneuver, rather than merely the overall performance.
In order for a learner to be signed off for a solo flight, the instructor needs to determine that the learner is qualified and proficient in
the flight tasks necessary for the flight. The instructor bases this assessment on the learner’s ability to demonstrate consi stent
proficiency on a number of flight maneuvers. Pilot skill evaluations occur during the conduct of courses at FAA-approved schools,
and teaching instructors should verify that learners meet the proficiency requirements prior to sending them for any stage check.
Postflight Evaluation
In assessing piloting ability, it is important for the flight instructor to keep the learner informed of progress. This may be done as each
procedure or maneuver is completed or summarized during postflight critiques. Postflight critiques should be in a written format, such
as notes to aid the flight instructor in covering all areas that were noticed during the flight or lesson. Traditionally, flight instructors
explained errors in performance, pointed out elements in which the deficiencies were believed to have originated and, if possible,
suggested appropriate corrective measures. Traditional assessment depends on a grading scale of “excellent, good, fair, poor” or
“exceeds standards, meets standards, needs more training” which often meets the instructor’s needs but not the needs of the learner.
With the advent of SBT, collaborative assessment is used whenever the learner has completed a scenario. As discussed in Chapters 5,
The Teaching Process, and Chapter 6, Assessment, SBT uses a highly structured script of real-world experiences to address aviation
training objectives in an operational environment. During the postflight evaluation, collaborative assessment is used to evaluate
whether certain learning criteria were met during the SBT.
Collaborative assessment includes learner self-assessment and a detailed assessment by the aviation instructor. The purpose of the
self-assessment is to stimulate growth in the learner’s thought processes and, in turn, behaviors. The self-assessment is followed by an
in-depth discussion between the instructor and the learner which compares the instructor’s assessment to the learner’s self-assessment.
First Solo Flight
During the learner’s first solo flight, the instructor needs to be present to assist in answering questions or resolving any issues that
arise during the flight. To ensure the solo flight is a positive, confidence-building experience for the learner, the flight instructor needs
to consider time of day when scheduling the flight. Time of day is a factor in traffic congestion, possible winds, sun angles, and
reflection.
If possible, the flight instructor needs access to a portable radio during any supervised solo operations. A radio enables the instructor
to terminate the solo operation if he or she observes a situation developing. The flight instructor needs should use good judgment
when communicating with a solo learner. Keep all radio communications to a minimum. Do not talk to the learner on short final of the
landing approach.
Post-Solo Debriefing
During a post- solo debriefing, the flight instructor discusses what took place during the learner’s solo flight. It is important for the
flight instructor to answer any questions the learner may have as result of a solo flight. Instructors need to be involved in all aspects of
the flight to ensure the learner utilizes correct flight procedures. It is very important for the flight instructor to debrief a learner
immediately after a solo flight. With the flight vividly etched in the learner’s memory, questions about the flight will come quickly.
Correction of Learner Errors
Correction of learner errors does not include the practice of taking over from learners immediately when a mistake is made. Safety
permitting, it is frequently better to let learners progress part of the way into the mistake and find a way out. For example, in a weight-
shift control aircraft the bar is moved right to turn left. A learner may show an initial tendency to move the bar in the direction of the
desired turn. This tendency dissipates with time, but allowing the learner to see the effect of his or her control input is a valuable aid
in illustrating the stability of the aircraft. It is difficult for learners to learn a maneuver properly if they seldom have the opportunity to
correct an error.
On the other hand, learners may perform a procedure or maneuver correctly and not fully understand the principles and objectives
involved. When the instructor suspects this, learners should be required to vary the performance of the maneuver slightly, combine it
with other operations, or apply the same elements to the performance of other maneuvers. Learners who do not understand the
principles involved will probably not be able to do this successfully.
Pilot Supervision
Flight instructors have the responsibility to provide guidance and restraint with respect to the solo operations of their learners. This is
by far the most important flight instructor responsibility. The flight instructor is the only person in a position to make th e
determination a learner is ready for solo operations. Before endorsing a learner for solo flight, the instructor should require the learner
to demonstrate consistent ability to perform all of the fundamental maneuvers.
Dealing with Normal Challenges
Instructors should teach learners how to solve ordinary problems encountered during flight. Traffic pattern congestion, change in
active runway, or unexpected crosswinds are challenges the learner masters individually before being able to perform them
collectively.
Visualization
SBT lends itself well to visualization techniques. For example, have a learner visualize how the flight may occur under norma l
circumstances, with the learner describing the progress of the flight. Then, the instructor adds unforeseen circumstances such as a
sudden change in weather that brings excessive winds during final approach. Other examples of SBT can have the instructor adding
undesired landing sites for balloon learner pilots, rope breaks for glider learners, and radio outages for instrument airplane learners.
Now, the learner gets to visualize how to handle the unexpected change.
During this visualization, the flight instructor can ask questions to check the learner’s thought processes. The job of the instructor is to
challenge the learner with realistic flying situations without creating an overburdening unrealis tic scenarios.
Practice Landings
Aircraft speed and contro l tak e precedence over other actions during landings and takeoffs. Fu ll stop landings help th e learner
develop aircraft control, allow for careful checklist use, and allow time for detailed instruction.
Instructors should stress touching down in the first third of the runway to ensure stopping before the end of the runway. This means
teaching learners to go-around if they do not touch down within that distance. Instructors should also stress the need for a go-around
if the landing develops an oscillation or results in a significant bounce. These techniques equip a learner for safe solo. Furthermore,
requiring the learner to make full stop landings during the first solo gives the instructor the opportunity to stop the flight if necessary.
When instructing in a glider (other than a motor glider), a go-around will not be possible. Instructors should teach learners to make
low energy landings based on current weather and wind conditions. This technique prepares learners to make an off-field landing if or
when necessary.
Practical Test Recommendations
Provision is made on the airman certificate or rating application form for the written recommendation of the flight instruct or who has
prepared the applicant for the practical test involved. Signing this recommendation imposes a serious responsibility on the flight
instructor. A flight instructor who makes a practical test recommendation for an applicant seeking a certificate or rating should require
the applicant to thoroughly demonstrate the knowledge and skill level required for that certificate or rating. This demonstration should
in no instance be less than the complete procedure prescribed in the applicable ACS/PTS.
When the instructor endorses the applicant for the practical test, his or her signature on the FAA Form 8710-1, Airman Certificate
and/or Rating Application, is valid for 60 days. This is also true with the flight proficiency endorsement that is placed in the
applicant’s logbook or training record (Advisory Circular (AC) 61-65). These two dates should be the same.
Instructors need to document completion of prerequisites for a practical test. Examples of all common endorsements can be found in
the current issue of AC 61-65, Appendix A. The appendix in the AC also includes references to 14 CFR part 61 for more details
concerning the respective endorsements. The examples shown contain the essential elements of each endorsement. It is not necessary
for all endorsements to be worded exactly as those in the AC. For example, changes to regulatory requirements may affect the
wording, or the instructor may customize the endorsement to accommodate any special circumstances concerning the applicant.
However, at a minimum, the instructor needs to cite the appropriate 14 CFR part 61 section that has been completed.
FAA inspectors and DPEs rely on flight instructor recommendations as evidence of qualification for certification, and proof that a
review has been given of the subject areas found to be deficient on the appropriate knowledge test. Recommendations also provide
assurance that the applicant has had a thorough briefing on the ACS/PTS and the associated knowledge areas, maneuvers, and
procedures. If the flight instructor has trained and prepared the applicant competently, the applicant should have no problem passing
the practical test.
If a flight instructor fails to ensure a learner pilot or additional rating pilot meets the requirements of regulations prior to making
endorsements to allow solo flight or additional rating, that instructor is exhibiting a serious deficiency in performance. The FAA may
hold that instructor accountable. Providing a solo endorsement for a learner pilot who is not proficient for solo flight operations, or
providing an endorsement for an additional rating for a pilot not meeting the appropriate regulatory requirements also repre sents a
breach of faith with the learner or applicant.
Chapter Summary
This chapter discussed the demonstration-performance and telling-and-doing training delivery methods of flight instruction, SBT
techniques, practical strategies flight instructors can use to enhance their instruction, integrated flight instruction, positive exchange of
flight controls, use of distractions, simulators and flight training devices, obstacles to learning encountered during flight training, and
how to evaluate learners. Additional information on recommendations and endorsements can be found in Appendix C, Certificates ,
Ratings, and Endorsements.