Text-only reference. Published from the recorded official FAA General Chapter 12 PDF. Diagrams, photographs, and figure artwork are not reproduced here; use the official FAA PDF for those materials.
12-113 DC C1 R1 AC input Rectifier Voltage across C1 with large load circuit Voltage across C1 with small load circuit L1 R1 AC input Rectifier Load capacitor filter. amplifier (especially amplifiers or preamplifiers for acoustic instruments, such as acoustic guitar, mandolin, bass instrument amplifier, etc.) to reduce or prevent feedback, while having little noticeable effect on the rest of the frequency spectrum. Other names include “band limit filter,” “T-notch filter,” “band- elimination filter,” and “band-rejection filter.” Typically, the width of the stop-band is less than 1 to 2 decades (that is, the highest frequency attenuated is less than 10 to 100 times the lowest frequency attenuated). In the audio band, a notch filter uses high and low frequencies that may be only semitones apart.
A band-stop filter is the general case. A notch filter is a specific type of band-stop filter with a very narrow range. Also called band-elimination, band-reject, or notch filters, this kind of filter passes all frequencies above and below a particular range set by the component values. Not surprisingly, it can be made out of a low-pass and a high-pass filter, just like the band-pass design, except that this time we connect the two filter sections in parallel with each other instead of in series. Figure 12-237 illustrates this type of circuit and the frequency/current flow response.
Amplifier Circuits
An amplifier is a device that enables an input signal to control an output signal. The output signal has some or all of the characteristics of the input signal but generally is a greater magnitude than the input signal in terms of voltage, current, or power. Gain is the basic function of all amplifiers. Because of this gain, we can expect the output signal to be greater than the input signal. For example, if we have an input signal of 1 volt and an output signal of 10 volts, then the gain factor can be determined by: Gain = Signal out /signal in Gain = 10 V/1 V = 10 V oltage gain is usually used to describe the operation of a small gain amplifier. In this type of an amplifier, the output signal voltage is larger than the input signal voltage. Power gain, on the other hand, is usually used to describe the operation of large signal amplifiers. In the case of power gain amplifiers, the gain is not based on voltage but on watts. A power amplifier is an amplifier in which the output signal power is greater than the input signal power. Most power amplifiers are used as the final stage of amplification and drive the output device. The output device could be a flight deck or cabin speaker, an indicator, or antenna. Whatever the device, the power to make it work comes from the final stage of amplification. Drivers for autopilot servos are sometimes contained in line replaceable units (LRUs) called autopilot amplifiers. These units take the low signal commands from the flight guidance system and amplify the signals to a level usable for driving the servo motors.
Classification The classification of a transistor amplifier circuit is determined by the percentage of the time that the current flows through the output circuit in relation to the input signal. There are four classifications of operation: A, AB, B, and C. Each class of operation has a certain use and characteristic. No individual class of amplifiers is considered the best. The best use of an amplifier is a matter of proper selection for the particular operation desired. 12-114 150 V 150 V 50 V A B C D C1 L-filter Load C1 Inverted L-filter Load T -filter LoadC1 π-filter LoadC1 C2 Class A In the Class A operation, the current in the transistor flows for 100 percent or 360° of the input signal.
[Figure 12-238] Class A operation is the least efficient class of operation but provides the best fidelity. Fidelity simply means that the output signal is a good reproduction of the input signal in all respects other than the amplitude, which is amplified. In some cases, there may be some phase shifting between the input signal and the output signal. Typically, the phase difference is 180°. If the output signal is not a good reproduction of the input signal, then the signal is said to be distorted. Distortion is any undesired change to the signal from the input to the output. The efficiency of an amplifier refers to the amount of power delivered to the output compared to the power supplied to the circuit. Every device in the circuit consumes power in order to operate. If the amplifier operates for 360° of input signal, then it is using more power than if it was using only 180° of input signal. The more power consumed by the amplifier, the less there is available for the output signal. Usually the Class A amplifier is used where efficiency is of little concern and where fidelity in reproduction is desired.
Class AB In the Class AB operation, the transistor current flows for more than 50 percent but less than 100 percent of the input signal. [Figure 12-239] Unlike the Class A amplifier, the output signal is distorted. A portion of the output circuit appears to be truncated. This is due to the lack of current through the transistor during this point of operation. When the emitter in this case becomes positive enough, the transistor cannot conduct because the base to emitter junction is no longer forward biased. The input signal going positive beyond this point does not produce any further output and the output remains level.
The Class AB amplifier has a better efficiency and a poorer fidelity than the Class A amplifier. These amplifiers are used when an exact reproduction of the input is not required but both the positive and negative portions of the input signals need to be available on the output. Class B In Class B operation, the transistor current flows for only 50 percent of the input signal. [Figure 12-240] In this illustration, the base-emitter bias does not allow the transistor to conduct whenever the input signal is greater than zero. In this case, only the negative portion of the input signal is reproduced. Unlike the rectifier, the Class B amplifier does not only reproduce half of the input signal, but it also amplifies it. Class B amplifiers are twice as efficient as the Class A amplifier because the amplifying device only uses power for half of the input signal.
Class C In Class C operations, transistor current flows for less than 50 percent of the input signal. [Figure 12-241] This class of