If the miniature aircraft of the turn coordinator indicates a
deviation from the desired deflection, adjust the bank. Adjust
pitch attitude to maintain altitude. When approaching the
desired airspeed, pitch attitude becomes primary for power
control and the manifold pressure gauge (or tachometer) is
adjusted to maintain the desired airspeed. Trim is important
throughout the maneuver to relieve control pressures.
Until control technique is very smooth, frequent cross-check
of the attitude indicator is essential to prevent overcontrolling
and to provide approximate bank angles appropriate to the
changing airspeeds.
Common Errors in Turns
Pitch
Pitch errors result from the following faults:
1. Preoccupation with bank control during turn entry
and recovery. If 5 seconds are required to roll into a
turn, check the pitch instruments as bank pressures
are initiated. If bank control pressure and rate of bank
change are consistent, a sense of the time required
for an attitude change is developed. During the
interval, check pitch, power, and trim—as well as
bank—controlling the total attitude instead of one
factor at a time.
2. Failure to understand or remember the need for
changing the pitch attitude as the vertical lift
component changes, resulting in consistent loss of
altitude during entries.
3. Changing the pitch attitude before it is necessary. This
fault is very likely if a cross-check is slow and rate
of entry too rapid. The error occurs during the turn
entry due to a mechanical and premature application
of back-elevator control pressure.
4. Overcontrolling the pitch changes. This fault
commonly occurs with the previous error.
5. Failure to properly adjust the pitch attitude as the
vertical lift component increases during the roll-out,
resulting in consistent gain in altitude on recovery
to headings.
6. Failure to trim during turn entry and following turn
recovery (if turn is prolonged).
7. Failure to maintain straight-and-level cross-check
after roll-out. This error commonly follows a perfectly
executed turn.
8. Erratic rates of bank change on entry and recovery,
resulting from failure to cross-check the pitch
instruments with a consistent technique appropriate
to the changes in lift.
Bank
Bank and heading errors result from the following faults:
1. Overcontrolling, resulting in overbanking upon turn
entry, overshooting and undershooting headings, as
well as aggravated pitch, airspeed, and trim errors.
2. Fixation on a single bank instrument. On a 90° change
of heading, for example, leave the heading indicator
out of the cross-check for approximately 20 seconds
after establishing a standard rate turn, since at 3°
per second the turn will not approach the lead point
until that time has elapsed. Make the cross-check
selective, checking only what needs to be checked at
the appropriate time.
3. Failure to check for precession of the horizon bar
following recovery from a turn. If the heading indicator
shows a change in heading when the attitude indicator
shows level flight, the airplane is turning. If the ball
is centered, the attitude gyro has precessed; if the ball
is not centered, the airplane may be in a slipping or
skidding turn. Center the ball with rudder pressure,
check the attitude indicator and heading indicator, stop
the heading change if it continues, and retrim.
4. Failure to use the proper degree of bank for the amount
of heading change desired. Rolling into a 20° bank
for a heading change of 10° will normally overshoot
the heading. Use the bank attitude appropriate to the
amount of heading change desired.
5. Failure to remember the heading to which the aircraft
is being turned. This fault is likely when rushing
the maneuver.
6. Turning in the wrong direction, due to misreading or
misinterpreting the heading indicator, or to confusion
regarding the location of points on the compass. Turn
in the shortest direction to reach a given heading,
unless there is a specific reason to turn the long way
around. Study the compass rose and visualize at least
the positions of the eight major points around the
azimuth. A number of methods can be used to make
quick computations for heading changes. For example,
to turn from a heading of 305° to a heading of 110°,
would a pilot turn right or left for the shortest way
around? Subtracting 200 from 305 and adding 20,
gives 125° as the reciprocal of 305°; therefore, execute
the turn to the right. Likewise, to figure the reciprocal
of a heading less than 180°, add 200 and subtract 20.
Computations are done more quickly using multiples
of 100s and 10s than by adding or subtracting 180°
from the actual heading; therefore, the method
suggested above may save time and confusion.
7. Failure to check the ball of the turn coordinator when
interpreting the instrument for bank information. If the
roll rate is reduced to zero, the miniature aircraft of
the turn coordinator indicates only direction and rate
of turn. Unless the ball is centered, do not assume the
turn is resulting from a banked attitude.
Power
Power and airspeed errors result from the following faults:
1. Failure to cross-check the ASI as pitch changes
are made.
2. Erratic use of power control. This may be due to
improper throttle friction control, inaccurate throttle
settings, chasing the airspeed readings, abrupt or
overcontrolled pitch-and-bank changes, or failure
to recheck the airspeed to note the effect of a
power adjustment.
3. Poor coordination of throttle control with pitch-and-
bank changes associated with slow cross-check or
failure to understand the aerodynamic factors related
to turns.
Trim
Trim errors result from the following faults:
1. Failure to recognize the need for a trim change due
to slow cross-check and interpretation. For example,
a turn entry at a rate too rapid for a cross-check leads
to confusion in cross-check and interpretation with
resulting tension on the controls.
2. Failure to understand the relationship between trim
and attitude/power changes.
3. Chasing the vertical speed needle. Overcontrolling
leads to tension and prevents sensing the pressures to
be trimmed off.
4. Failure to trim following power changes.
Errors During Compass Turns
In addition to the faults discussed above, the following errors
connected with compass turns should be noted:
1. Faulty understanding or computation of lead and lag.
2. Fixation on the compass during the roll-out. Until
the airplane is in straight-and-level unaccelerated
flight, it is unnecessary to read the indicated heading.
Accordingly, after the roll-out, cross-check for
straight-and-level flight before checking the accuracy
of the turn.
Approach to Stall
Practicing approach to stall recoveries in various airplane
configurations should build confidence in a pilot’s ability to
control the airplane in unexpected situations. Approach to
stall should be practiced from straight flight and from shallow
banks. The objective is to practice recognition and recovery
from the approach to a stall.
Prior to stall recovery practice, select a safe altitude above
the terrain, an area free of conflicting air traffic, appropriate
weather, and the availability of radar traffic advisory service.
Approaches to stalls are accomplished in the following
configurations:
1. Takeoff configuration—should begin from level flight
near liftoff speed. Power should be applied while
simultaneously increasing the angle of attack to induce
an indication of a stall.
2. Clean configuration—should begin from a reduced
airspeed, such as pattern airspeed, in level flight.
Power should be applied while simultaneously
increasing the angle of attack to induce an indication
of a stall.
3. Approach or landing configuration—should be
initiated at the appropriate approach or landing
airspeed. The angle of attack should be smoothly
increased to induce an indication of a stall.
Recoveries should be prompt in response to a stall warning
device or an aerodynamic indication by smoothly reducing
the angle of attack and applying maximum power or as
recommended by the POH/AFM. The recovery should be
completed without an excessive loss of altitude and on a
predetermined heading, altitude, and airspeed.
Unusual Attitudes and Recoveries
An unusual attitude is an airplane attitude not normally
required for instrument flight. Unusual attitudes may
result from a number of conditions, such as turbulence,
disorientation, instrument failure, confusion, preoccupation
with flight deck duties, carelessness in cross-checking,
errors in instrument interpretation, or lack of proficiency in
aircraft control. Since unusual attitudes are not intentional
maneuvers during instrument flight, except in training, they
are often unexpected, and the reaction of an inexperienced
or inadequately trained pilot to an unexpected abnormal
flight attitude is usually instinctive rather than intelligent
and deliberate. This individual reacts with abrupt muscular
30.0 29.9 29.8
Figure 5-39. Unusual attitude-nose high.
Gaining altitude
Climbing right turn
Airspeed decreasing
Figure 7-39. Unusual attitude—nose-high.
effort, which is purposeless and even hazardous in turbulent
conditions, at excessive speeds, or at low altitudes. However,
with practice, the techniques for rapid and safe recovery from
unusual attitudes can be mastered.
When an unusual attitude is noted during the cross-check,
the immediate problem is not how the airplane got there, but
what it is doing and how to get it back to straight-and-level
flight as quickly as possible.
Recognizing Unusual Attitudes
As a general rule, any time an instrument rate of movement
or indication other than those associated with the basic
instrument flight maneuvers is noted, assume an unusual
attitude and increase the speed of cross-check to confirm the
attitude, instrument error, or instrument malfunction.
Nose-high attitudes are shown by the rate and direction of
movement of the altimeter needle, vertical speed needle, and
airspeed needle, as well as the immediately recognizable
indication of the attitude indicator (except in extreme
attitudes). [Figure 7-39] Nose-low attitudes are shown
by the same instruments, but in the opposite direction.
[Figure 7-40]
Recovery from Unusual Attitudes
In moderate unusual attitudes, the pilot can normally
reorient by establishing a level flight indication on the
attitude indicator. However, the pilot should not depend on
this instrument if the attitude indicator is the spillable type,
because its upset limits may have been exceeded or it may
have become inoperative due to mechanical malfunction.
If it is the nonspillable-type instrument and is operating
properly, errors up to 5 degrees of pitch-and-bank may result
and its indications are very difficult to interpret in extreme
attitudes. As soon as the unusual attitude is detected, the
recommended recovery procedures stated in the POH/AFM
should be initiated. If there are no recommended procedures
stated in the POH/AFM, the recovery should be initiated by
reference to the ASI, altimeter, VSI, and turn coordinator.
Nose-High Attitudes
If the airspeed is decreasing, or below the desired airspeed,
increase power (as necessary in proportion to the observed
deceleration), apply forward elevator pressure to lower the
nose and prevent a stall, and correct the bank by applying
coordinated aileron and rudder pressure to level the
miniature aircraft and center the ball of the turn coordinator.
The corrective control applications are made almost
simultaneously, but in the sequence given above. A level
pitch attitude is indicated by the reversal and stabilization
30.0 29.9 29.8
Figure 5-40. Unusual attitude-nose low.
Losing altitude
Diving left turn
Airspeed increasing
Figure 7-40. Unusual attitude—nose-low.
of the ASI and altimeter needles. Straight coordinated flight
is indicated by the level miniature aircraft and centered ball
of the turn coordinator.
Nose-Low Attitudes
If the airspeed is increasing, or is above the desired airspeed,
reduce power to prevent excessive airspeed and loss of
altitude. Correct the bank attitude with coordinated aileron
and rudder pressure to straight flight by referring to the turn
coordinator. Raise the nose to level flight attitude by applying
smooth back elevator pressure. All components of control
should be changed simultaneously for a smooth, proficient
recovery. However, during initial training a positive,
confident recovery should be made by the numbers, in the
sequence given above. A very important point to remember
is that the instinctive reaction to a nose-down attitude is to
pull back on the elevator control.
After initial control has been applied, continue with a
fast cross-check for possible overcontrolling, since the
necessary initial control pressures may be large. As the rate
of movement of altimeter and ASI needles decreases, the
attitude is approaching level flight. When the needles stop
and reverse direction, the aircraft is passing through level
flight. As the indications of the ASI, altimeter, and turn
coordinator stabilize, incorporate the attitude indicator into
the cross-check.
The attitude indicator and turn coordinator should be checked
to determine bank attitude and then corrective aileron
and rudder pressures should be applied. The ball should
be centered. If it is not, skidding and slipping sensations
can easily aggravate disorientation and retard recovery. If
entering the unusual attitude from an assigned altitude (either
by an instructor or by air traffic control (ATC) if operating
under instrument flight rules (IFR)), return to the original
altitude after stabilizing in straight-and-level flight.
Common Errors in Unusual Attitudes
Common errors associated with unusual attitudes include
the following faults:
1. Failure to keep the airplane properly trimmed. A flight
deck interruption when holding pressures can easily
lead to inadvertent entry into unusual attitudes.
2 Disorganized flight deck. Hunting for charts, logs,
computers, etc., can seriously distract attention from
the instruments.
3. Slow cross-check and fixations. The impulse is to
stop and stare when noting an instrument discrepancy
unless a pilot has trained enough to develop the skill
required for immediate recognition.
4. Attempting to recover by sensory sensations other than
sight. The discussion of disorientation in Chapter 3,
Human Factors, indicates the importance of trusting
the instruments.
5. Failure to practice basic instrument skills. All of the
errors noted in connection with basic instrument skills
are aggravated during unusual attitude recoveries until
the elementary skills have been mastered.
Instrument Takeoff
Competency in instrument takeoffs will provide the
proficiency and confidence necessary for use of flight
instruments during departures under conditions of low
visibility, rain, low ceilings, or disorientation at night. A
sudden rapid transition from “visual” to “instrument” flight
can result in serious disorientation and control problems.
Instrument takeoff techniques vary with different types of
airplanes, but the method described below is applicable
whether the airplane is single- or multiengine; tricycle gear
or conventional gear.
Align the airplane with the centerline of the runway with
the nosewheel or tailwheel straight. Lock the tailwheel, if
so equipped, and hold the brakes firmly to avoid creeping
while preparing for takeoff. Set the heading indicator with
the nose index on the 5 degree mark nearest the published
runway heading to allow instant detection of slight changes in
heading during the takeoff. Make certain that the instrument
is uncaged (if it has a caging feature) by rotating the knob
after uncaging and checking for constant heading indication.
If using an electric heading indicator with a rotatable needle,
rotate the needle so that it points to the nose position, under
the top index. Advance the throttle to an rpm that will provide
partial rudder control. Release the brakes, advancing the
power smoothly to takeoff setting.
During the takeoff roll, hold the heading constant on the
heading indicator by using the rudder. In multiengine,
propeller-driven airplanes, also use differential throttle to
maintain direction. The use of brakes should be avoided,
except as a last resort, as it usually results in overcontrolling
and extending the takeoff roll. Once the brakes are released,
any deviation in heading must be corrected instantly.
As the airplane accelerates, cross-check both heading
indicator and ASI rapidly. The attitude indicator may precess
to a slight nose-up attitude. As flying speed is approached
(approximately 15–25 knots below takeoff speed), smoothly
apply elevator control for the desired takeoff attitude on the
attitude indicator. This is approximately a two bar width
climb indication for most small airplanes.
Continue with a rapid cross-check of heading indicator and
attitude indicator as the airplane leaves the ground. Do not
pull it off; let it fly off while holding the selected attitude
constant. Maintain pitch-and-bank control by referencing
the attitude indicator, and make coordinated corrections in
heading when indicated on the heading indicator. Cross-
check the altimeter and VSI for a positive rate of climb
(steady clockwise rotation of the altimeter needle, and the VSI
showing a stable rate of climb appropriate to the airplane).
When the altimeter shows a safe altitude (approximately 100
feet), raise the landing gear and flaps, maintaining attitude by
referencing the attitude indicator. Because of control pressure
changes during gear and flap operation, overcontrolling is
likely unless the pilot notes pitch indications accurately and
quickly. Trim off control pressures necessary to hold the
stable climb attitude. Check the altimeter, VSI, and airspeed
for a smooth acceleration to the predetermined climb speed
(altimeter and airspeed increasing, vertical speed stable). At
climb speed, reduce power to climb setting (unless full power
is recommended for climb by the POH/AFM and trim).
Throughout the instrument takeoff, cross-check and
interpretation must be rapid and control positive and smooth.
During liftoff, gear and flap retraction, power reduction, and
the changing control reactions demand rapid cross-check,
adjustment of control pressures, and accurate trim changes.
Common Errors in Instrument Takeoffs
Common errors during the instrument takeoff include
the following:
1. Failure to perform an adequate flight deck check
before the takeoff. Pilots have attempted instrument
takeoffs with inoperative airspeed indicators (pitot
tube obstructed), gyros caged, controls locked, and
numerous other oversights due to haste or carelessness.
2. Improper alignment on the runway. This may result
from improper brake application, allowing the
airplane to creep after alignment or from alignment
with the nosewheel or tailwheel cocked. In any case,
the result is a built-in directional control problem as
the takeoff starts.
3. Improper application of power. Abrupt application
of power complicates directional control. Add power
with a smooth, uninterrupted motion.
4. Improper use of brakes. Incorrect seat or rudder pedal
adjustment, with feet in an uncomfortable position,
frequently cause inadvertent application of brakes and
excessive heading changes.
Figure 5-41
Start
End
Figure 7-41. Racetrack pattern (entire pattern in level flight).
5. Overcontrolling rudder pedals. This fault may be
caused by late recognition of heading changes, tension
on the controls, misinterpretation of the heading
indicator (and correcting in the wrong direction),
failure to appreciate changing effectiveness of rudder
control as the aircraft accelerates, and other factors. If
heading changes are observed and corrected instantly
with small movement of the rudder pedals, swerving
tendencies can be reduced.
6. Failure to maintain attitude after becoming airborne.
If the pilot reacts to seat-of-the-pants sensations when
the airplane lifts off, pitch control is guesswork.
The pilot may either allow excessive pitch or apply
excessive forward elevator pressure, depending on the
reaction to trim changes.
7. Inadequate cross-check. Fixations are likely during trim
changes, attitude changes, gear and flap retractions,
and power changes. Once an instrument or a control
input is applied, continue the cross-check and note the
effect during the next cross-check sequence.
8. Inadequate interpretation of instruments. Failure to
understand instrument indications immediately indicates
that further study of the maneuver is necessary.
Basic Instrument Flight Patterns
Flight patterns are basic maneuvers, flown by sole reference
to the instruments rather than outside visual clues, for the
purpose of practicing basic attitude flying. The patterns
simulate maneuvers encountered on instrument flights,
such as holding patterns, procedure turns, and approaches.
After attaining a reasonable degree of proficiency in basic
maneuvers, apply these skills to the various combinations of
individual maneuvers. The following practice flight patterns
are directly applicable to operational instrument flying.
Racetrack Pattern
1. Time 3 minutes straight-and-level flight from A to B.
[Figure 7-41] During this interval, reduce airspeed to
the holding speed appropriate for the aircraft.
2. Start a 180° standard rate turn to the right at B. Roll-
out at C on the reciprocal of the heading originally
used at A.
3. Time a 1 minute straight-and-level flight from C to D.
4. Start a 180° standard rate turn to the right at D, rolling-
out on the original heading.
5. Fly 1 minute on the original heading, adjusting the
outbound leg so that the inbound segment is 1 minute.
NOTE: This pattern is an exercise combining use of the clock
with basic maneuvers.
Procedure Turn
A procedure turn is a maneuver that facilitates:
• A reversal in flight direction.
• A descent from an initial approach fix or assigned
altitude to a permissible altitude (usually the procedure
turn altitude).
• An interception of the inbound course at a sufficient
distance allowing the aircraft to become aligned with
the final approach.
Procedure turn types include the 45° turn, the 80/260 turn, and
the teardrop turn. All of these turns are normally conducted no
more than 10 nautical miles (NM) from the primary airport.
The procedure turn altitude generally provides a minimum
of 1,000' obstacle clearance in the procedure turn area (not
necessarily within the 10 NM arc around the primary airport).
Turns may have to be increased or decreased but should not
exceed 30° of a bank angle.
Standard 45° Procedure Turn
1. Start timing at point A (usually identified on approach
procedures by a fix). For example, fly outbound on a
heading of 360° for a given time (2 minutes, in this
example). [Figure 7-42]
2. After flying outbound for 2 minutes (point B), turn left
45° to a heading of 315° using a standard rate turn.
After roll-out and stabilizing, fly this new heading
of 315° for 40 seconds and the aircraft will be at the
approximate position of C.
Start
End
Figure 5-42
Figure 7-42. Standard procedure turn (entire pattern in level flight).
Start
End
Figure 5-43
Figure 7-43. 80/260 procedure turn (entire pattern in level flight).
Figure 5-44
30° of heading
20° of heading
10° of heading
Turning point.
10° 20°
30°
Figure 7-44. Teardrop pattern (entire pattern in level flight).
3. At point C, turn 225° right (using a standard rate turn)
which will provide a heading of 180°. The timing is
such that in a no wind environment, the pilot will be
aligned with the final approach course of 180° at D.
Wind conditions, however must be considered during
the execution of the procedure turn. Compensating
for wind may result in changes to outbound time,
procedure turn heading and/or time and minor changes
in the inbound turn.
80/260 Procedure Turn
1. Start timing at point A (usually identified on approach
procedures by a fix). For example, fly outbound on a
heading of 360° for 2 minutes. [Figure 7-43]
2. At B, enter a left standard rate turn of 80° to a heading
of 280°.
3. At the completion of the 80° turn to 280° (Point C),
immediately turn right 260°, rolling-out on a heading
of 180° (Point D) and also the reciprocal of the
entry heading.
Teardrop Patterns
There are three typical teardrop procedure turns. A 30°, 20°,
and a 10° teardrop pattern. The below steps indicate actions
for all three starting on a heading of 360°. [Figure 7-44]
1. At point B (after stabilizing on the outbound course)
turn left:
• 30° to a heading of 330° and time for 1 minute
• 20° to a heading of 340° and time for 2 minutes
• 10° to a heading of 350° and time for 3 minutes
2. After the appropriate time above (Point C), make a
standard rate turn to the right for:
• 30° teardrop—210° to the final course heading
of 180° (Point D)
• 20° teardrop—200° to the final course heading
of 180° (Point D)
• 10° teardrop—190° to the final course heading
of 180° (Point D)
Figure 5-45 I
Figure 7-45. Circling approach pattern I (imaginary runway).
Figure 5-45 II
Figure 7-46. Circling approach pattern II (imaginary runway).
By using the different teardrop patterns, a pilot is afforded the
ability to manage time more efficiently. For instance, a 10°
pattern for 3 minutes provides about three times the distance
(and time) than a 30° pattern. Pattern selection should be
based upon an individual assessment of the procedure turn
requirements to include wind, complexity, the individual
preparedness, etc.
Circling Approach Patterns
Pattern I
1. At A, start timing for 2 minutes from A to B; reduce
airspeed to approach speed. [Figure 7-45]
2. At B, make a standard rate turn to the left for 45°.
3. At the completion of the turn, time for 45 seconds
to C.
4. At C, turn to the original heading; fly 1 minute to D,
lowering the landing gear and flaps.
5. At D, turn right 180°, rolling-out at E on the reciprocal
of the entry heading.
6. At E, enter a 500 fpm rate descent. At the end of a 500
foot descent, enter a straight constant-airspeed climb,
retracting gear and flaps.
Pattern II
Steps:
1. At A, start timing for 2 minutes from A to B; reduce
airspeed to approach speed. [Figure 7-46]
2. At B, make a standard rate turn to the left for 45°.
3. At the completion of the turn, time for 1 minute to C.
4. At C, turn right for 180° to D; fly for 1-1/2 minutes
to E, lowering the landing gear and flaps.
5. At E, turn right for 180°, rolling-out at F.
6. At F, enter a 500 fpm rate descent. At the end of a 500
foot descent, enter a straight constant-airspeed climb,
retracting gear and flaps.