Introduction
The previous chapters have laid the foundation for instrument
flying. The pilot’s ability to use and interpret the information
displayed and apply corrective action is required to maneuver
the aircraft and maintain safe flight. A pilot must recognize
that each aircraft make and model flown may require a
different technique. Aircraft weight, speed, and configuration
changes require the pilot to vary his or her technique in order
to perform successful attitude instrument flying. A pilot must
become familiar with all sections of the Pilot’s Operating
Handbook/Airplane Flight Manual (POH/AFM) prior to
performing any flight maneuver.
Chapter 7, Section II describes basic attitude instrument
flight maneuvers and explains how to perform each one
by interpreting the indications presented on the electronic
flight display (EFD). In addition to normal flight maneuvers,
“partial panel” flight is addressed. With the exception of the
instrument takeoff, all flight maneuvers can be performed on
“partial panel” with the Attitude Heading Reference System
(AHRS) unit simulated or rendered inoperative.
Airplane Basic
Flight Maneuvers
Chapter 7, Section II
Using an Electronic Flight Display
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Figure 5-47. Pitch Attitude and Airspeed in Level Flight, Slow Cruise Speed.
Attitude indicator
Vertical speed indicator
Airspeed indicator
Airspeed trend vector
Altimeter indicator
Altitude trend vector
Figure 7-47. Pitch attitude and airspeed in level flight, slow
cruise speed.
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Figure 5-48. Pitch Attitude and Airspeed in Level Flight, Fast Cruise Speed.
Figure 7-48. Pitch attitude decreasing and airspeed increasing—indicates need to increase pitch.
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Figure 5-49. Pitch Attitude and Airspeed in Level Flight, Normal Cruise Speed.
5°
4°
3°
2°
1°
Figure 7-49. Various pitch attitudes (right), aircraft shown in
level flight.
Straight-and-Level Flight
Pitch Control
The pitch attitude of an airplane is the angle between the
longitudinal axis of the airplane and the actual horizon.
In level flight, the pitch attitude varies with airspeed and
load. For training purposes, the latter factor can normally
be disregarded in small airplanes. At a constant airspeed,
there is only one specific pitch attitude for level flight. At
slow cruise speeds, the level flight attitude is nose-high with
indications as in Figure 7-47; at fast cruise speeds, the level
flight attitude is nose-low. [Figure 7-48] Figure 7-49 shows
the indications for the attitude at normal cruise speeds.
The instruments that directly or indirectly indicate pitch on
the primary flight display (PFD) are the attitude indicator,
altimeter, vertical speed indicator (VSI), airspeed indicator
(ASI), and both airspeed and altitude trend indicators.
Attitude Indicator
The attitude indicator gives the pilot a direct indication of
the pitch attitude. The increased size of the attitude display
on the EFD system greatly increases situational awareness
for the pilot. Most attitude indicators span the entire width
of the PFD screen.
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Figure 7-50. Pitch indications for various attitudes (1° through 5°).
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Figure 5-51. Pitch Correction for Level Flight, three-bar width. Figure 7-51. Pitch illustrated at 10°.
The aircraft pitch attitude is controlled by changing the
deflection of the elevator. As the pilot pulls back on the
control yoke causing the elevator to rise, the yellow chevron
begins to show a displacement up from the artificial horizon
line. This is caused by the AHRS unit sensing the changing
angle between the longitudinal plane of the earth and the
longitudinal axis of the aircraft.
The attitude indicator displayed on the PFD screen is a
representation of outside visual cues. Rather than rely on the
natural horizon visible during visual flight rules (VFR) flight,
the pilot must rely on the artificial horizon of the PFD screen.
During normal cruise airspeed, the point of the yellow
chevron (aircraft symbol) is positioned on the artificial
horizon. Unlike conventional attitude indicators, the EFD
attitude indicator does not allow for manipulating the position
of the chevron in relationship to the artificial horizon. The
position is fixed and therefore always display the pitch angle
as calculated by the AHRS unit.
The attitude indicator only shows pitch attitude and does
not indicate altitude. A pilot should not attempt to maintain
level flight using the attitude indicator alone. It is important
for the pilot to understand how small displacements both up
and down can affect the altitude of the aircraft. To achieve
this, the pilot should practice increasing the pitch attitude
incrementally to become familiar with how each degree of
pitch changes the altitude. [Figures 7-50 and 7-51] In both
cases, the aircraft will slow and gain altitude.
The full height of the chevron is approximately 5 degrees
and provides an accurate reference for pitch adjustment. It is
imperative that the pilot make the desired changes to pitch by
referencing the attitude indicator and then trimming off any
excess control pressures. Relieving these pressures allow for
a more stabilized flight and reduces pilot work load. Once the
aircraft is trimmed for level flight, the pilot must smoothly
and precisely manipulate the elevator control forces in order
to change the pitch attitude.
To master the ability to smoothly control the elevator, a pilot
must develop a very light touch on the control yoke. The
thumb and two fingers are normally sufficient to move the
control yoke. The pilot should avoid griping the yoke with
a full fist. When a pilot grips the yoke with a full fist, there
is a tendency to apply excess pressures, thus changing the
aircraft attitude.
Practice making smooth, small pitch changes both up and
down until precise corrections can be made. With practice,
a pilot is able to make pitch changes in 1 degree increments,
smoothly controlling the attitude of the aircraft.
The last step in mastering elevator control is trim. Trimming
the aircraft to relieve any control pressures is essential
for smooth attitude instrument flight. To accomplish this,
momentarily release the control yoke. Note which way the
aircraft pitch attitude wants to move. Grasp the control yoke
again and then reapply the pressure to return the attitude to the
previous position. Apply trim in the direction of the control
pressure. Small applications of trim make large changes in
the pitch attitude. Be patient and make multiple changes to
trim, if necessary.
Once the aircraft is in trim, relax on the control yoke as
much as practicable. When pressure is held on the yoke,
unconscious pressures are applied to the elevator and ailerons,
which displaces the aircraft from its desired flightpath. If the
aircraft is in trim, in calm, non-turbulent air, a pilot should be
able to release the control yoke and maintain level flight for
extended periods of time. This is one of the hardest skills to
learn prior to successfully flying in instrument meteorological
conditions (IMC).
Altimeter
At constant power, any deviation from level flight (except
in turbulent air) must be the result of a pitch change. If the
power is constant, the altimeter gives an indirect indication
of the pitch attitude in level flight. Since the altitude should
remain constant when the airplane is in level flight, any
deviation from the desired altitude signals the need for a
pitch change. For example, if the aircraft is gaining altitude,
the nose must be lowered.
In the PFD, as the pitch starts to change, the altitude trend
indicator on the altitude tape begins to show a change in
the direction of displacement. The rate at which the trend
indicator grows and the altimeter numbers change aids the
pilot in determining how much of a pitch change is necessary
to stop the trend.
As a pilot becomes familiar with a specific aircraft’s
instruments, he or she learns to correlate pitch changes,
altimeter tapes, and altitude trend indicators. By adding the
altitude tape display and the altitude trend indicator into the
scan along with the attitude indicator, a pilot starts to develop
the instrument cross-check.
Partial Panel Flight
One important skill to practice is partial panel flight by
referencing the altimeter as the primary pitch indicator.
Practice controlling the pitch by referencing the altitude
tape and trend indicator alone without the use of the attitude
indicator. Pilots need to learn to make corrections to altitude
deviations by referencing the rate of change of the altitude
tape and trend indicator. When operating in IMC and in a
partial panel configuration, the pilot should avoid abrupt
changes to the control yoke. Reacting abruptly to altitude
changes can lead to large pitch changes and thus a larger
divergence from the initial altitude.
When a pilot is controlling pitch by the altitude tape and
altitude trend indicators alone, it is possible to overcontrol
the aircraft by making a larger than necessary pitch
correction. Overcontrolling causes the pilot to move from
a nose-high attitude to a nose-low attitude and vice versa.
Small changes to pitch are required to insure prompt
corrective actions are taken to return the aircraft to its
original altitude with less confusion.
When an altitude deviation occurs, two actions need to be
accomplished. First, make a smooth control input to stop
the needle movement. Once the altitude tape has stopped
moving, make a change to the pitch attitude to start back to
the entry altitude.
During instrument flight with limited instrumentation, it is
imperative that only small and precise control inputs are
made. Once a needle movement is indicated denoting a
deviation in altitude, the pilot needs to make small control
inputs to stop the deviation. Rapid control movements only
compound the deviation by causing an oscillation effect.
This type of oscillation can quickly cause the pilot to become
disoriented and begin to fixate on the altitude. Fixation on
the altimeter can lead to a loss of directional control as well
as airspeed control.
As a general rule of thumb, for altitude deviations less than
100 feet, utilize a pitch change of 1 degree, which equates to
1⁄5 of the thickness of the chevron. Small incremental pitch
changes allow the performance to be evaluated and eliminate
overcontrolling of the aircraft.
Instrumentation needs to be utilized collectively, but failures
will occur that leave the pilot with only limited instrumentation.
That is why partial panel flying training is important. If the
pilot understands how to utilize each instrument independently,
no significant change is encountered in carrying out the flight
when other instruments fail.
VSI Tape
The VSI tape provides for an indirect indication of pitch
attitude and gives the pilot a more immediate indication of a
pending altitude deviation. In addition to trend information,
the vertical speed also gives a rate indication. By using the
VSI tape in conjunction with the altitude trend tape, a pilot has
a better understanding of how much of a correction needs to
be made. With practice, the pilot will learn the performance
of a particular aircraft and know how much pitch change
is required in order to correct for a specific rate indication.
Unlike older analog VSIs, new glass panel displays have
instantaneous VSIs. Older units had a lag designed into the
system that was utilized to indicate rate information. The
new glass panel displays utilize a digital air data computer
that does not indicate a lag. Altitude changes are shown
immediately and can be corrected for quickly.
The VSI tape should be used to assist in determining what
pitch changes are necessary to return to the desired altitude.
A good rule of thumb is to use a vertical speed rate of change
that is double the altitude deviation. However, at no time
should the rate of change be more than the optimum rate of
climb or descent for the specific aircraft being flown. For
example, if the altitude is off by 200 feet from the desired
altitude, then a 400 feet per minute (fpm) rate of change
would be sufficient to get the aircraft back to the original
altitude. If the altitude has changed by 700 feet, then doubling
that would necessitate a 1,400 fpm change. Most aircraft
are not capable of that, so restrict changes to no more than
optimum climb and descent. An optimum rate of change
would vary between 500 and 1,000 fpm.
One error the instrument pilot encounters is overcontrolling.
Overcontrolling occurs when a deviation of more than 200
fpm is indicated over the optimum rate of change. For
example, an altitude deviation of 200 feet is indicated on
the altimeter, a vertical speed rate of 400 feet should be
indicated on the gauge. If the vertical speed rate showed
600 fpm (200 more than optimum), the pilot would be
overcontrolling the aircraft.
When returning to altitude, the primary pitch instrument
is the VSI tape. If any deviation from the desired vertical
speed is indicated, make the appropriate pitch change using
the attitude indicator.
As the aircraft approaches the target altitude, the vertical speed
rate can be slowed in order to capture the altitude in a more
stabilized fashion. Normally within 10 percent of the rate of
climb or descent from the target altitude, begin to slow the
vertical speed rate in order to level off at the target altitude.
This allows the pilot to level at the desired altitude without
rapid control inputs or experiencing discomfort due to G-load.
Airspeed Indicator (ASI)
The ASI presents an indirect indication of the pitch attitude.
At a constant power setting and pitch attitude, airspeed
remains constant. As the pitch attitude lowers, airspeed
increases, and the nose should be raised.
As the pitch attitude is increased, the nose of the aircraft
raises, which results in an increase in the angle of attack as
well as an increase in induced drag. The increased drag begins
to slow the momentum of the aircraft, which is indicated on
the ASI. The airspeed trend indicator shows a trend as to
where the airspeed will be in 6 seconds. Conversely, if the
nose of the aircraft should begin to fall, the angle of attack,
as well as induced drag, decreases.
There is a lag associated with the ASI when using it as a pitch
instrument. It is not a lag associated with the construction
of the ASI, but a lag associated with momentum change.
Depending on the rate of momentum change, the ASI may not
indicate a pitch change in a timely fashion. If the ASI is being
used as the sole reference for pitch change, it may not allow
for a prompt correction. However, if smooth pitch changes
are executed, modern glass panel displays are capable of
indicating 1 knot changes in airspeed and also capable of
projecting airspeed trends.
When flying by reference to flight instruments alone, it
is imperative that all of the flight instruments be cross-
checked for pitch control. By cross-checking all pitch related
instruments, the pilot can better visualize the aircraft attitude
at all times.
As previously stated, the primary instrument for pitch is the
instrument that gives the pilot the most pertinent information
for a specific parameter. When in level flight and maintaining
a constant altitude, what instrument shows a direct indication
of altitude? The only instrument that is capable of showing
altitude is the altimeter. The other instruments are supporting
instruments that are capable of showing a trend away from
altitude, but do not directly indicate an altitude.
The supporting instruments forewarn of an impending
altitude deviation. With an efficient cross-check, a proficient
pilot is better able to maintain altitude.
Bank Control
This discussion assumes the aircraft is being flown in
coordinated flight, which means the longitudinal axis of the
aircraft is aligned with the relative wind. On the PFD, the
attitude indicator shows if the wings are level. The turn rate
indicator, slip/skid indicator, and the heading indicator also
indicate whether or not the aircraft is maintaining a straight
(zero bank) flightpath.
Attitude Indicator
The attitude indicator is the only instrument on the PFD that
has the capability of displaying the precise bank angle of the
aircraft. This is made possible by the display of the roll scale
depicted as part of the attitude indicator.
Figure 7-52 identifies the components that make up the
attitude indicator display. Note that the top of the display is
blue, representing sky, the bottom is brown, depicting dirt,
and the white line separating them is the horizon. The lines
parallel to the horizon line are the pitch scale, which is marked
in 5 degree increments and labeled every 10 degrees. The
pitch scale always remains parallel to the horizon.
The curved line in the blue area is the roll scale. The triangle
on the top of the scale is the zero index. The hash marks on
the scale represent the degree of bank. [Figure 7-53] The
roll scale always remains in the same position relative to
the horizon line.
0°
30°
45°
60°
90°
Figure 5-52. Bank Interpretation with the Attitude Incicator.
Figure 7-53. Attitude indicator showing a 15° left bank.
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Figure 5-54. Slip/Skid & Turn Rate Indication.
Slip/Skid indicator
Turn rate indicator
Turn rate trend vector
Figure 7-54. Slip/skid and turn rate indicator.
Figure 5-53. Attitude Indicator.
Roll pointer
Roll scale
Slip/Skid indicator
Roll scale zero
Pitch scale
Aircraft symbol
Horizon line
Figure 7-52. Attitude indicator.
The roll pointer indicates the direction and degree of bank.
[Figure 7-53] The roll pointer is aligned with the aircraft
symbol. The roll pointer indicates the angle of the lateral axis
of the aircraft compared to the natural horizon. The slip/skid
indicator will show if the longitudinal axis of the aircraft is
aligned with the relative wind, which is coordinated flight.
With the roll index and the slip/skid indicator aligned, any
deflection, either right or left of the roll index causes the
aircraft to turn in that direction. With the small graduations
on the roll scale, it is easy to determine the bank angle within
approximately 1 degree. In coordinated flight, if the roll
index is aligned with the roll pointer, the aircraft is achieving
straight flight.
An advantage of EFDs is the elimination of the precession
error. Precession error in analog gauges is caused by forces
being applied to a spinning gyro. With the new solid state
instruments, precession error has been eliminated.
Since the attitude indicator is capable of showing precise
pitch and bank angles, the only time that the attitude indicator
is a primary instrument is when attempting to fly at a specific
bank angle or pitch angle. Other times, the attitude instrument
can be thought of as a control instrument.
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI)
The horizontal situation indicator (HSI) is a rotating 360°
compass card that indicates magnetic heading. The HSI is the
only instrument that is capable of showing exact headings. The
magnetic compass can be used as a backup instrument in case
of an HSI failure; however, due to erratic, unstable movements,
it is more likely to be used a supporting instrument.
In order for the pilot to achieve the desired rate of change,
it is important for him or her to understand the relationship
between the rate at which the HSI changes heading displays
and the amount of bank angle required to meet that rate of
change. A very small rate of heading change means the bank
angle is small, and it takes more time to deviate from the
desired straight flightpath. A larger rate of heading change
means a greater bank angle happens at a faster rate.
Heading Indicator
The heading indicator is the large black box with a white
number that indicates the magnetic heading of the aircraft.
[Figure 7-54] The aircraft heading is displayed to the nearest
degree. When this number begins to change, the pilot should
be aware that straight flight is no longer being achieved.
Turn Rate Indicator
The turn rate indicator gives an indirect indication of bank.
It is a magenta trend indicator capable of displaying half-
standard as well as standard rate turns to both the left and
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Figure 7-55. An aircraft decreasing in airspeed while gaining
altitude. In this case, the pilot has decreased pitch.
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Figure 7-56. Figure shows both an increase in speed and altitude
where pitch adjustment alone is insufficient. In this situation, a
reduction of power is also necessary.
right. [Figure 7-54] The turn indicator is capable of indicating
turns up to 4 degrees per second by extending the magenta
line outward from the standard rate mark. If the rate of turn
has exceeded 4 degrees per second, the magenta line can
not precisely indicate where the heading will be in the next
6 seconds; the magenta line freezes and an arrowhead will
be displayed. This alerts the pilot to the fact that the normal
range of operation has been exceeded.
Slip/Skid Indicator
The slip/skid indicator is the small portion of the lower
segmented triangle displayed on the attitude indicator. This
instrument depicts whether the aircraft’s longitudinal axis is
aligned with the relative wind. [Figure 7-54]
The pilot must always remember to cross-check the roll index
to the roll pointer when attempting to maintain straight flight.
Any time the heading remains constant and the roll pointer and
the roll index are not aligned, the aircraft is in uncoordinated
flight. To make a correction, the pilot should apply rudder
pressure to bring the aircraft back to coordinated flight.
Power Control
Power produces thrust which, with the appropriate angle of
attack of the wing, overcomes the forces of gravity, drag,
and inertia to determine airplane performance.
Power control must be related to its effect on altitude and
airspeed, since any change in power setting results in a change
in the airspeed or the altitude of the airplane. At any given
airspeed, the power setting determines whether the airplane
is in level flight, in a climb, or in a descent. If the power is
increased in straight-and-level flight and the airspeed held
constant, the airplane climbs; if power is decreased while
the airspeed is held constant, the airplane descends. On the
other hand, if altitude is held constant, the power applied
determines the airspeed.
The relationship between altitude and airspeed determines the
need for a change in pitch or power. If the airspeed is off the
desired value, always check the altimeter before deciding that
a power change is necessary. Think of altitude and airspeed
as interchangeable; altitude can be traded for airspeed by
lowering the nose, or convert airspeed to altitude by raising
the nose. If altitude is higher than desired and airspeed is
low, or vice versa, a change in pitch alone may return the
airplane to the desired altitude and airspeed. [Figure 7-55] If
both airspeed and altitude are high or if both are low, then a
change in both pitch and power is necessary in order to return
to the desired airspeed and altitude. [Figure 7-56]
For changes in airspeed in straight-and-level flight, pitch, bank,
and power must be coordinated in order to maintain constant
altitude and heading. When power is changed to vary airspeed
in straight-and-level flight, a single-engine, propeller-driven
airplane tends to change attitude around all axes of movement.
Therefore, to maintain constant altitude and heading, apply
various control pressures in proportion to the change in power.
When power is added to increase airspeed, the pitch instruments
indicate a climb unless forward-elevator control pressure is
applied as the airspeed changes. With an increase in power, the
airplane tends to yaw and roll to the left unless counteracting
aileron and rudder pressures are applied. Keeping ahead of
these changes requires increasing cross-check speed, which
varies with the type of airplane and its torque characteristics,
the extent of power and speed change involved.
Power Settings
Power control and airspeed changes are much easier when
approximate power settings necessary to maintain various
airspeeds in straight-and-level flight are known in advance.
However, to change airspeed by any appreciable amount, the
common procedure is to underpower or overpower on initial
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Primary power
Supporting pitch
Supporting power
Primary bank
Primary pitch
Figure 5-13. Straight-and-level flight (normal cruising speed).
Supporting bank
Figure 7-57. Straight-and-level flight (normal cruising speed).
power changes to accelerate the rate of airspeed change. (For
small speed changes, or in airplanes that decelerate or accelerate
rapidly, overpowering or underpowering is not necessary.)
Consider the example of an airplane that requires 23 inches
of mercury ("Hg) to maintain a normal cruising airspeed of
120 knots, and 18 "Hg to maintain an airspeed of 100 knots.
The reduction in airspeed from 120 knots to 100 knots while
maintaining straight-and-level flight is discussed below and
illustrated in Figures 7-57, 7-58, and 7-59.
Instrument indications, prior to the power reduction, are
shown in Figure 7-57. The basic attitude is established and
maintained on the attitude indicator. The specific pitch,
bank, and power control requirements are detected on these
primary instruments:
Altimeter—Primary Pitch
Heading Indicator—Primary Bank
Airspeed Indicator—Primary Power
Supporting pitch and bank instruments are shown in
Figure 7-57. Note that the supporting power instrument is
the manifold pressure gauge (or tachometer if the propeller
is fixed pitch). However, when a smooth power reduction to
approximately 15 "Hg (underpower) is made, the manifold
pressure gauge becomes the primary power instrument.
[Figure 7-58] With practice, power setting can be changed
with only a brief glance at the power instrument, by sensing
the movement of the throttle, the change in sound, and the
changes in the feel of control pressures.
As the thrust decreases, increase the speed of the cross-check
and be ready to apply left rudder, back-elevator, and aileron
control pressure the instant the pitch and bank instruments
show a deviation from altitude and heading. As proficiency
is obtained, a pilot will learn to cross-check, interpret, and
control the changes with no deviation of heading and altitude.
Assuming smooth air and ideal control technique, as airspeed
decreases, a proportionate increase in airplane pitch attitude
is required to maintain altitude. Similarly, effective torque
control means counteracting yaw with rudder pressure.
As the power is reduced, the altimeter is primary for
pitch, the heading indicator is primary for bank, and the
manifold pressure gauge is momentarily primary for power
(at 15 "Hg in Figure 7-58 ). Control pressures should be
trimmed off as the airplane decelerates. As the airspeed
approaches the desired airspeed of 100 knots, the manifold
pressure is adjusted to approximately 18 "Hg and becomes
the supporting power instrument. The ASI again becomes
primary for power. [Figure 7-59]
Airspeed Changes in Straight-and-Level Flight
Practice of airspeed changes in straight-and-level flight
provides an excellent means of developing increased
proficiency in all three basic instrument skills and brings
out some common errors to be expected during training
in straight-and-level flight. Having learned to control the
airplane in a clean configuration (minimum drag conditions),
increase proficiency in cross-check and control by practicing
speed changes while extending or retracting the flaps and
landing gear. While practicing, be sure to comply with the