XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL10:12:34
INSET PFD CDI XPDR IDENT TMR/REF NRST ALERTS
13.7
23.0
VOR 1
270°
-200
TAS 116KT
OAT 6°C
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
Current procedure
Before procedure
18.0
Figure 5-22. Level-off airspeed higher than descent airspeed. Figure 7-66. The top image illustrates a reduction of power and descending at 500 fpm to an altitude of 5,000 feet. The bottom image
illustrates an increase in power and the initiation of leveling off.
To level off at climbing airspeed, lower the nose to the
appropriate pitch attitude for level flight with a simultaneous
reduction in power to a setting that maintains the desired
speed. With a coordinated reduction in pitch and power, there
should be no change in the airspeed.
Descents
Descending flight can be accomplished at various airspeeds
and pitch attitudes by reducing power, lowering the nose
to a pitch attitude lower than the level flight attitude, or
adding drag. Once any of these changes have been made, the
airspeed eventually stabilizes During this transitional phase,
the only instrument that displays an accurate indication of
pitch is the attitude indicator. Without the use of the attitude
indicator (such as in partial panel flight), the ASI tape, the
VSI tape, and the altimeter tape shows changing values until
the aircraft stabilizes at a constant airspeed and constant rate
of descent. The altimeter tape continues to show a descent.
Hold pitch constant and allow the aircraft to stabilize. During
any change in attitude or airspeed, continuous application of
trim is required to eliminate any control pressures that need
to be applied to the control yoke. An increase in the scan rate
during the transition is important since changes are being
made to the aircraft flightpath and speed. [Figure 7-66]
Entry
Descents can be accomplished with a constant rate, constant
airspeed, or a combination. The following method can
accomplish any of these with or without an attitude indicator.
Reduce the power to allow the aircraft to decelerate to the
desired airspeed while maintaining straight-and-level flight.
As the aircraft approaches the desired airspeed, reduce the
power to a predetermined value. The airspeed continues to
decrease below the desired airspeed unless a simultaneous
reduction in pitch is performed. The primary instrument
for pitch is the ASI tape. If any deviation from the desired
speed is noted, make small pitch corrections by referencing
the attitude indicator and validate the changes made with the
airspeed tape. Utilize the airspeed trend indicator to judge
if the airspeed is increasing and at what rate. Remember to
trim off any control pressures.
The entry procedure for a constant rate descent is the same
except the primary instrument for pitch is the VSI tape. The
primary instrument for power is the ASI. When performing
a constant rate descent while maintaining a specific airspeed,
coordinated use of pitch and power is required. Any change
in pitch directly affects the airspeed. Conversely, any change
in airspeed has a direct impact on vertical speed as long as
the pitch is being held constant.
Leveling Off
When leveling off from a descent with the intention of
returning to cruise airspeed, first start by increasing the
power to cruise prior to increasing the pitch back toward
the level flight attitude. A technique used to determine
how soon to start the level off is to lead the level off by an
altitude corresponding to 10 percent of the rate of descent.
For example, if the aircraft is descending at 1,000 fpm, start
the level off 100 feet above the level off altitude. If the pitch
attitude change is started late, there is a tendency to overshoot
the desired altitude unless the pitch change is made with
a rapid movement. Avoid making any rapid changes that
could lead to control issues or spatial disorientation. Once
in level pitch attitude, allow the aircraft to accelerate to the
desired speed. Monitor the performance on the airspeed and
altitude tapes. Make adjustments to the power in order to
correct any deviations in the airspeed. Verify that the aircraft
is maintaining level flight by cross-checking the altimeter
tape. If deviations are noticed, make an appropriate smooth
pitch change in order to arrive back at desired altitude. Any
change in pitch requires a smooth coordinated change to the
power setting. Monitor the airspeed in order to maintain the
desired cruise airspeed.
To level off at a constant airspeed, the pilot must again
determine when to start to increase the pitch attitude toward
the level attitude. If pitch is the only item that is changing,
airspeed varies due to the increase in drag as the aircraft’s
pitch increases. A smooth coordinated increase in power
needs to be made to a predetermined value in order to
maintain speed. Trim the aircraft to relieve any control
pressure that may have to be applied.
Common Errors in Straight Climbs and Descents
Climbing and descending errors usually result from but are
not limited to the following errors:
1. Overcontrolling pitch on beginning the climb. Aircraft
familiarization is the key to achieving precise attitude
instrument flying. Until the pilot becomes familiar with
the pitch attitudes associated with specific airspeeds,
the pilot must make corrections to the initial pitch
settings. Changes do not produce instantaneous and
stabilized results; patience must be maintained while
the new speeds and vertical speed rates stabilize. Avoid
the temptations to make a change and then rush into
making another change until the first one is validated.
Small changes produce more expeditious results and
allow for a more stabilized flightpath. Large changes
to pitch and power are more difficult to control and can
further complicate the recovery process.
2. Failure to increase the rate of instrument cross-check.
Any time a pitch or power change is made, an increase
in the rate a pilot cross-checks the instrument is
required. A slow cross-check can lead to deviations
in other flight attitudes.
3. Failure to maintain new pitch attitudes. Once a
pitch change is made to correct for a deviation, that
pitch attitude must be maintained until the change
is validated. Utilize trim to assist in maintaining the
new pitch attitude. If the pitch is allowed to change,
it is impossible to validate whether the initial pitch
change was sufficient to correct the deviation. The
continuous changing of the pitch attitude delays the
recovery process.
4. Failure to utilize effective trim techniques. If control
pressures have to be held by the pilot, validation of the
initial correction is impossible if the pitch is allowed to
vary. Pilots have the tendency to either apply or relax
additional control pressures when manually holding
pitch attitudes. Trim allows the pilot to fly without
holding pressure on the control yoke.
5. Failure to learn and utilize proper power settings.
Any time a pilot is not familiar with an aircraft’s
specific pitch and power settings, or does not
utilize them, a change in flightpaths takes longer.
Learn pitch and power settings in order to expedite
changing the flightpath.
6. Failure to cross-check both airspeed and vertical speed
prior to making adjustments to pitch and or power. It is
possible that a change in one may correct a deviation
in the other.
7. Uncoordinated use of pitch and power during level
offs. During level offs, both pitch and power settings
need to be made in unison in order to achieve the
desired results. If pitch is increased before adding
power, additional drag is generated thereby reducing
airspeed below the desired value.
8. Failure to utilize supporting pitch instruments leads to
chasing the VSI. Always utilize the attitude indicator
as the control instrument on which to change the pitch.
9. Failure to determine a proper lead time for level off
from a climb or descent. Waiting too long can lead to
overshooting the altitude.
10. Ballooning—Failure to maintain forward control
pressure during level off as power is increased.
Additional lift is generated causing the nose of the
aircraft to pitch up.
Turns
Standard Rate Turns
The previous sections have addressed flying straight-and-
level as well as climbs and descents. However, attitude
instrument flying is not accomplished solely by flying
in a straight line. At some point, the aircraft needs to be
turned to maneuver along victor airways, global positioning
system (GPS) courses, and instrument approaches. The
key to instrument flying is smooth, controlled changes to
pitch and bank. Instrument flying should be a slow but
deliberate process that takes the pilot from departure airport
to destination airport without any radical flight maneuvers.
A turn to specific heading should be made at standard rate.
Standard rate is defined as a turning rate of 3 degrees per
second, which yields a complete 360° turn in 2 minutes.
A turning rate of 3 degrees per second allows for a timely
heading change, as well as allowing the pilot sufficient time to
cross-check the flight instruments and avoid drastic changes
to the aerodynamic forces being exerted on the aircraft. At no
time should the aircraft be maneuvered faster than the pilot
is comfortable cross-checking the flight instruments. Most
autopilots are programmed to turn at standard rate.
Establishing A Standard Rate Turn
In order to initiate a standard rate turn, approximate the
bank angle and then establish that bank angle on the attitude
indicator. A rule of thumb to determine the approximate angle
of bank is to use 15 percent of the true airspeed. A simple
way to determine this amount is to divide the airspeed by
10 and add one-half the result. For example, at 100 knots,
approximately 15° of bank is required (100/10 = 10 + 5 =
15); at 120 knots, approximately 18° of bank is needed for a
standard-rate turn. Cross-check the turn rate indicator, located
on the HSI, to determine if that bank angle is sufficient to
deliver a standard rate turn. Slight modifications may need
to be made to the bank angle in order to achieve the desired
performance. The primary bank instrument in this case is the
turn rate indicator since the goal is to achieve a standard rate
turn. The turn rate indicator is the only instrument that can
specifically indicate a standard rate turn. The attitude indicator
is used only to establish a bank angle (control instrument) but
can be utilized as a supporting instrument by cross-checking
the bank angle to determine if the bank is greater or less than
what was calculated.
As the aircraft rolls into the bank, the vertical component
of lift begins to decrease. [Figure 7-67] As this happens,
additional lift must be generated to maintain level flight.
Apply aft control pressure on the yoke sufficient to stop any
altitude loss trend. With the increase in lift that needs to be
generated, additional induced drag is also generated. This
additional drag causes the aircraft to start to decelerate. To
counteract this, apply additional thrust by adding power to the
power lever. Once altitude and airspeed is being maintained,
utilize the trim wheel to eliminate any control forces that need
to be held on the control column.
When rolling out from a standard rate turn, the pilot needs
to utilize coordinated aileron and rudder and roll-out to a
wings level attitude utilizing smooth control inputs. The
roll-out rate should be the same as the roll-in rate in order to
estimate the lead necessary to arrive at the desired heading
without over- or undershooting.
During the transition from the turn back to straight flight, the
attitude indicator becomes the primary instrument for bank.
Once the wings are level, the heading indicator becomes
the primary instrument for bank. As bank decreases, the
vertical component increases if the pitch attitude is not
decreased sufficiently to maintain level flight. An aggressive
cross-check keeps the altimeter stationary if forward control
pressure is applied to the control column. As the bank angle is
decreased, the pitch attitude should be decreased accordingly
in order to arrive at the level pitch attitude when the aircraft
reaches zero bank. Remember to utilize the trim wheel to
eliminate any excess control forces that would otherwise
need to be held.
Common Errors
1. One common error associated with standard rate turns
is due to pilot inability to hold the appropriate bank
angle that equates to a standard rate. The primary bank
instrument during the turn is the turn rate indicator;
however, the bank angle varies slightly. With an
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL10:12:34
INSET PFD CDI XPDR IDENT TMR/REF NRST ALERTS
VOR 1
305°
TAS 126KT
OAT 6°C
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
Primary bank initially
supporting pitch
Supporting pitch
Primary bank
Primary pitch
Primary bank as turn is established
Primary power
Figure 5-23. Standard rate turn constant airspeed. Figure 7-67. Standard rate turn—constant airspeed.
aggressive cross-check, a pilot should be able to
minimize errors arising from over- or underbanking.
2. Another error normally encountered during standard
rate turns is inefficient or lack of adequate cross-
checking. Pilots need to establish an aggressive
cross-check in order to detect and eliminate all
deviations from altitude, airspeed, and bank angle
during a maneuver.
3. Fixation is a major error associated with attitude
instrument flying in general. Pilots training for their
instrument rating tend to focus on what they perceive
to be the most important task at hand and abandon
their cross-check by applying all of their attention to
the turn rate indicator. A modified radial scan works
well to provide the pilot with adequate scanning of all
instrumentation during the maneuver.
Turns to Predetermined Headings
Turning the aircraft is one of the most basic maneuvers that a
pilot learns during initial flight training. Learning to control
the aircraft, maintaining coordination, and smoothly rolling
out on a desired heading are all keys to proficient attitude
instrument flying.
EFDs allow the pilot to better utilize all instrumentation during
all phases of attitude instrument flying by consolidating all
traditional instrumentation onto the PFD. The increased size
of the attitude indicator, which stretches the entire width of
the PFD, allows the pilot to maintain better pitch control
while the introduction of the turn rate indicator positioned
directly on the compass rose aids the pilot in determining
when to begin a roll-out for the desired heading.
When determining what bank angle to utilize when making a
heading change, a general rule states that for a small heading
change, do not use a bank angle that is greater than the total
number of degrees of change needed. For instance, if a
heading change of 20° is needed, a bank angle of not more
than 20° is required. Another rule of thumb that better defines
the bank angle is half the total number of degrees of heading
change required, but never greater than standard rate. The
exact bank angle that equates to a standard rate turn varies
due to true airspeed.
With this in mind and the angle of bank calculated, the next step
is determining when to start the roll-out process. For example:
An aircraft begins a turn from a heading of 030° to a heading
of 120°. With the given airspeed, a standard rate turn has
yielded a 15° bank. The pilot wants to begin a smooth
coordinated roll-out to the desired heading when the heading
indicator displays approximately 112°. The necessary
calculations are:
15° bank (standard rate) ÷ 2 = 7.5°
120° – 7.5° = 112.5°
By utilizing this technique, the pilot is better able to judge
if any modifications need to be made to the amount of lead
once the amount of over- or undershooting is established.
Timed Turns
Timed turns to headings are performed in the same fashion
with an EFD as with an analog equipped aircraft. The
instrumentation used to perform this maneuver is the turn rate
indicator as well as the clock. The purpose of this maneuver
is to allow the pilot to gain proficiency in scanning as well
as to further develop the pilot’s ability to control the aircraft
without standard instrumentation.
Timed turns become essential when controlling the aircraft
with a loss of the heading indicator. This may become
necessary due to a loss of the AHRS unit or the magnetometer.
In any case, the magnetic compass is still available for
navigation. The reason for timed turns instead of magnetic
compass turns is the simplicity of the maneuver. Magnetic
compass turns require the pilot to take into account various
errors associated with the compass; timed turns do not.
Prior to initiating a turn, determine if the standard rate indication
on the turn rate indicator actually delivers a 3 degrees per
second turn. To accomplish this, a calibration must be made.
Establish a turn in either direction at the indicated standard
rate. Start the digital timer as the compass rolls past a cardinal
heading. Stop the timer once the compass card rolls through
another cardinal heading. Roll wings level and compute the
rate of turn. If the turn rate indicator is calibrated and indicating
correctly, 90° of heading change should take 30 seconds. If
the time taken to change heading by 90° is more or less than
30 seconds, then a deflection above or below the standard rate
line needs to be made to compensate for the difference. Once
the calibration has been completed in one direction, proceed
to the opposite direction. When both directions have been
calibrated, apply the calibrated calculations to all timed turns.
In order to accomplish a timed turn, the amount of heading
change needs to be established. For a change in heading from
120° to a heading of 360°, the pilot calculates the difference
and divides that number by 3. In this case, 120° divided by
3° per second equals 40 seconds. This means that it would
take 40 seconds for an aircraft to change heading 120° if that
aircraft were held in a perfect standard rate turn. Timing for
the maneuver should start as the aircraft begins rolling into
the standard rate turn. Monitor all flight instruments during
this maneuver. The primary pitch instrument is the altimeter.
The primary power instrument is the ASI and the primary
bank instrument is the turn rate indicator.
Once the calculated time expires, start a smooth coordinated
roll-out. As long as the pilot utilizes the same rate of roll-in as
roll-out, the time it takes for both will not need to be included
in the calculations. With practice, the pilot should level the
wings on the desired heading. If any deviation has occurred,
make small corrections to establish the correct heading.
Compass Turns
The magnetic compass is the only instrument that requires
no other source of power for operation. In the event of an
AHRS or magnetometer failure, the magnetic compass is
the instrument the pilot uses to determine aircraft heading.
For a more detailed explanation on the use of the magnetic
compass, see page 7-21.
Steep Turns
For the purpose of instrument flight training, a steep turn is
defined as any turn in excess of standard rate. A standard
rate turn is defined as 3 degrees per second. The bank angle
that equates to a turn rate of 3 degrees per second varies
according to airspeed. As airspeed increases, the bank angle
must be increased. The exact bank angle that equates to a
standard rate turn is unimportant. Normal standard rate turn
bank angles range from 10° to 20°. The goal of training in
steep turn maneuvers is pilot proficiency in controlling the
aircraft with excessive bank angles.
Training in excessive bank angles challenges the pilot in
honing cross-checking skills and improves altitude control
throughout a wider range of flight attitudes. Although the
current instrument flight check practical test standards (PTS)
do not call for a demonstration of steep turns on the certification
check flight, this does not eliminate the need for the instrument
pilot-in-training to demonstrate proficiency to an instructor.
Training in steep turns teaches the pilot to recognize and to
adapt to rapidly changing aerodynamic forces that necessitate
an increase in the rate of cross-checking all flight instruments.
The procedures for entering, maintaining, and exiting a
steep turn are the same as for shallower turns. Proficiency in
instrument cross-check and interpretation is increased due to
the higher aerodynamic forces and increased speed at which
the forces are changing.
XPDR 5537 IDNT LCL23:00:34
VOR 1
270°
-1500
TAS 126KT
OAT 7°C
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
ALERTS
Figure 7-68. Steep left turn.
Performing the Maneuver
To enter a steep turn to the left, roll into a coordinated 45°
bank turn to the left. An advantage that glass panel displays
have over analog instrumentation is a 45° bank indication on
the roll scale. This additional index on the roll scale allows
the pilot to precisely roll into the desired bank angle instead
of having to approximate it as is necessary with analog
instrumentation. [Figure 7-68]
As soon as the bank angle increases from level flight, the
vertical component of lift begins to decrease. If the vertical
component of lift is allowed to continue to decrease, a
pronounced loss of altitude is indicated on the altimeter
along with the VSI tape, as well as the altitude trend
indicator. Additionally, the airspeed begins to increase due
to the lowered pitch attitude. It is very important to have
a comprehensive scan developed prior to training in steep
turns. Utilization of all of the trend indicators, as well the
VSI, altimeter, and ASI, is essential in learning to fly steep
turns by reference to instruments alone.
In order to avoid a loss of altitude, the pilot begins to slowly
increase back pressure on the control yoke in order to increase
the pitch attitude. The pitch change required is usually no
more than 3 degrees to 5 degrees, depending on the type of
aircraft. As the pilot increases back pressure, the angle of
attack increases, thus increasing the vertical component of
lift. When a deviation in altitude is indicated, proper control
force corrections need to be made. During initial training of
steep turns, pilots have a tendency to overbank. Over banking
is when the bank angle exceeds 50°. As the outboard wing
begins to travel faster through the air, it begins to generate a
greater and greater differential in lift compared to the inboard
wing. As the bank angle continues to progress more and
more steeply past 45°, the two components of lift (vertical
and horizontal) become inversely proportionate.
Once the angle has exceeded 45°, the horizontal component
of lift is now the greater force. If altitude should continue to
decrease and the pilot only applies back yoke pressure, the
aircraft’s turn radius begins to tighten due to the increased
horizontal force. If aft control pressure continues to increase,
there comes a point where the loss of the vertical component
of lift and aerodynamic wing loading prohibits the nose of
the aircraft from being raised. Any increase in pitch only
tightens the turning radius.
The key to successfully performing a steep turn by reference
to instruments alone is the thorough understanding of the
aerodynamics involved, as well as a quick and reliable cross-
check. The pilot should utilize the trim to avoid holding
control forces for any period of time. With time and practice,
a flight instructor can demonstrate how to successfully fly
steep turns with and without the use of trim. Once the aircraft
is trimmed for the maneuver, accomplishing the maneuver is
virtually a hands-off effort. This allows additional time for
cross-checking and interpreting the instruments.
It is imperative when correcting for a deviation in altitude,
that the pilot modify the bank angle ±5° in order to vary the
vertical component of lift, not just adjust back pressure. These
two actions should be accomplished simultaneously.
During the recovery from steep turns to straight-and-level
flight, aft control forces must be varied with the power control
to arrive back at entry altitude, heading and airspeed.
Steps:
1. Perform clearing turns.
2. Roll left into a 45° bank turn and immediately begin to
increase the pitch attitude by approximately 3° to 5°.
3. As the bank rolls past 30°, increase power to maintain
the entry airspeed.
4. Apply trim to eliminate any aft control wheel forces.
5. Begin rolling out of the steep turn approximately 20°
prior to the desired heading.
6. Apply forward control pressure and place the pitch
attitude in the level cruise pitch attitude.
7. Reduce power to the entry power setting to maintain
the desired airspeed.
8. Re-trim the aircraft as soon as practical or continue
into a right hand steep turn and continue from step 3.
GPS ENR
60 60
50 50
40 40
30 30
20 20
ALERTS
NAV1 108.00 113.00
NAV2 108.00 110.60
134.000 118.000 COM1
123.800 118.000 COM2
WPT _ _ _ _ _ _ DIS _ _ ._ NM DTK _ _ _° TRK 360°
Figure 7-69. Unusual attitude recovery protection. Note the brown horizon line is visible at the bottom.
9. Once the maneuver is complete, establish cruise flight
and accomplish all appropriate checklist items.
Unusual Attitude Recovery Protection
Unusual attitudes are some of the most hazardous situations
for a pilot to be in. Without proper recovery training
on instrument interpretation and aircraft control, a pilot
can quickly aggravate an abnormal flight attitude into a
potentially fatal accident.
Analog gauges require the pilot to scan between instruments
to deduce the aircraft attitude. Individually, these gauges lack
the necessary information needed for a successful recovery.
EFDs have additional features to aid in recognition and
recovery from unusual flight attitudes. The PFD displays
all the flight instruments on one screen. Each instrument is
superimposed over a full-screen representation of the attitude
indicator. With this configuration, the pilot no longer needs
to transition from one instrument to another.
The new unusual attitude recovery protection allows the
pilot to be able to quickly determine the aircraft’s attitude
and make a safe, proper, and prompt recovery. Situational
awareness is increased by the introduction of the large
full-width artificial horizon depicted on the PFD. This now
allows for the attitude indicator to be in view during all
portions of the scan.
One problem with analog gauges is that the attitude indicator
displays a complete blue or brown segment when the pitch
attitude is increased toward 90° nose-up or nose-down.
With the EFDs, the attitude indicator is designed to retain
a portion of both sky and land representation at all times.
This improvement allows the pilot to always know the
quickest way to return to the horizon. Situational awareness
is greatly increased.
NOTE: The horizon line starts moving downward at
approximately 47° pitch up. From this point on, the brown
segment remains visible to show the pilot the quickest way
to return to the level pitch attitude. [Figure 7-69]
NOTE: The horizon line starts moving upward at
approximately 27° pitch down. From this point on, the blue
segment remains visible to show the pilot the quickest way
to return to the level pitch attitude. [Figure 7-70]
It is imperative to understand that the white line on the
attitude indicator is the horizon line. The break between the
blue and brown symbols is only a reference and should not
be thought of as the artificial horizon.
Another important advancement is the development of the
unusual attitude recovery protection that is built into the PFD
software and made capable by the AHRS. In the case of a nose-
high unusual attitude, the unusual attitude recovery protection
displays red chevrons that point back to the horizon line. These