This handbook was produced as a combined Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) and industry effort. The FAA wishes
to acknowledge the following contributors:
The laboratory of Dale Purves, M.D. and Mr. Al Seckel in providing imagery (found in Chapter 3) for visual illusions
from the book, The Great Book of Optical Illusions, Firefly Books, 2004
Sikorsky Aircraft Corporation and Robinson Helicopter Company for imagery provided in Chapter 2
Garmin Ltd. for providing flight system information and multiple display systems to include integrated flight, GPS and
communication systems; information and hardware used with WAAS, LAAS; and information concerning encountering
emergencies with high-technology systems
Universal Avionics System Corporation for providing background information of the Flight Management System and
an overview on Vision–1 and Traffic Alert and Collision Avoidance systems (TCAS)
Meggitt/S-Tec for providing detailed autopilot information regarding installation and use
Cessna Aircraft Company in providing instrument panel layout support and information on the use of onboard systems
Kearfott Guidance and Navigation Corporation in providing background information on the Ring-LASAR gyroscope
and its history
Honeywell International Inc., for Terrain Awareness Systems (TAWS) and various communication and radio systems
sold under the Bendix-King name
Chelton Flight Systems and Century Flight Systems, Inc., for providing autopilot information relating to Highway in
the Sky (Chelton) and HSI displays (Century)
Avidyne Corporation for providing displays with alert systems developed and sold by Ryan International,
L3 Communications, and Tectronics
Additional appreciation is extended to the Aircraft Owners and Pilots Association (AOPA), the AOPA Air Safety
Institute, and the National Business Aviation Association (NBAA) for their technical support and input.
Acknowledgments
Is an Instrument Rating Necessary?
The answer to this question depends entirely upon individual
needs. Pilots may not need an instrument rating if they fly in
familiar uncongested areas, stay continually alert to weather
developments, and accept an alternative to their original plan.
However, some cross-country destinations may take a pilot
to unfamiliar airports and/or through high activity areas in
marginal visual or instrument meteorological conditions
(IMC). Under these conditions, an instrument rating may
be an alternative to rerouting, rescheduling, or canceling
a flight. Many accidents are the result of pilots who lack
the necessary skills or equipment to fly in marginal visual
meteorological conditions (VMC) or IMC and attempt flight
without outside references.
Pilots originally flew aircraft strictly by sight, sound, and
feel while comparing the aircraft’s attitude to the natural
horizon. As aircraft performance increased, pilots required
more inflight information to enhance the safe operation of
their aircraft. This information has ranged from a string tied
to a wing strut, to development of sophisticated electronic
flight information systems (EFIS) and flight management
systems (FMS). Interpretation of the instruments and aircraft
control have advanced from the “one, two, three” or “needle,
ball, and airspeed” system to the use of “attitude instrument
flying” techniques.
Navigation began by using ground references with dead
reckoning and has led to the development of electronic
navigation systems. These include the automatic direction
finder (ADF), very-high frequency omnidirectional range
(VOR), distance measuring equipment (DME), tactical air
navigation (TACAN), long range navigation (LORAN),
global positioning system (GPS), instrument landing system
(ILS), microwave landing system (MLS), and inertial
navigation system (INS).
Perhaps you want an instrument rating for the same basic
reason you learned to fly in the first place—because you like
flying. Maintaining and extending your proficiency, once you
have the rating, means less reliance on chance and more on
skill and knowledge. Earn the rating—not because you might
Introduction
need it sometime, but because it represents achievement and
provides training you will use continually and build upon
as long as you fly. But most importantly it means greater
safety in flying.
Instrument Rating Requirements
A private or commercial pilot must have an instrument
rating and meet the appropriate currency requirements if
that pilot operates an aircraft using an instrument flight
rules (IFR) flight plan in conditions less than the minimums
prescribed for visual flight rules (VFR), or in any flight in
Class A airspace.
You will need to carefully review the aeronautical knowledge
and experience requirements for the instrument rating as
outlined in Title 14 of the Code of Federal Regulations
(14 CFR) part 61. After completing the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA) Knowledge Test issued for the
instrument rating, and all the experience requirements have
been satisfied, you are eligible to take the practical test. The
regulations specify minimum total and pilot-in-command
time requirements. This minimum applies to all applicants
regardless of ability or previous aviation experience.
Training for the Instrument Rating
A person who wishes to add the instrument rating to his or
her pilot certificate must first make commitments of time,
money, and quality of training. There are many combinations
of training methods available. Independent studies may be
adequate preparation to pass the required FAA Knowledge
Test for the instrument rating. Occasional periods of ground
and flight instruction may provide the skills necessary to
pass the required test. Or, individuals may choose a training
facility that provides comprehensive aviation education and
the training necessary to ensure the pilot will pass all the
required tests and operate safely in the National Airspace
System (NAS). The aeronautical knowledge may be
administered by educational institutions, aviation-oriented
schools, correspondence courses, and appropriately rated
instructors. Each person must decide for themselves which
training program best meets his or her needs and at the same
time maintain a high quality of training. Interested persons
should make inquiries regarding the available training at
nearby airports, training facilities, in aviation publications,
and through the FAA Flight Standards District Office
(FSDO).
Although the regulations specify minimum requirements,
the amount of instructional time needed is determined not
by the regulation, but by the individual’s ability to achieve
a satisfactory level of proficiency. A professional pilot with
diversified flying experience may easily attain a satisfactory
level of proficiency in the minimum time required by
regulation. Your own time requirements will depend upon a
variety of factors, including previous flying experience, rate
of learning, basic ability, frequency of flight training, type of
aircraft flown, quality of ground school training, and quality
of flight instruction, to name a few. The total instructional
time you will need, the scheduling of such time, is up to the
individual most qualified to judge your proficiency—the
instructor who supervises your progress and endorses your
record of flight training.
You can accelerate and enrich much of your training by
informal study. An increasing number of visual aids and
programmed instrument courses is available. The best course
is one that includes a well-integrated flight and ground school
curriculum. The sequential nature of the learning process
requires that each element of knowledge and skill be learned
and applied in the right manner at the right time.
Part of your instrument training may utilize a flight simulator,
flight training device, basic aviation training device (BATD),
or an advanced aviation training device (AATD). This
ground-based flight training equipment is a valuable tool
for developing your instrument cross-check and learning
procedures, such as intercepting and tracking, holding
patterns, and instrument approaches. Once these concepts are
fully understood, you can then continue with inflight training
and refine these techniques for full transference of your new
knowledge and skills.
Holding the instrument rating does not necessarily make you a
competent all-weather pilot. The rating certifies only that you
have complied with the minimum experience requirements,
that you can plan and execute a flight under IFR, that you
can execute basic instrument maneuvers, and that you have
shown acceptable skill and judgment in performing these
activities. Your instrument rating permits you to fly into
instrument weather conditions with no previous instrument
weather experience. Your instrument rating is issued on
the assumption that you have the good judgment to avoid
situations beyond your capabilities. The instrument training
program you undertake should help you to develop not only
essential flying skills but also the judgment necessary to use
the skills within your own limits.
Regardless of the method of training selected, the curriculum
in Appendix B, Instrument Training Lesson Guide, provides
guidance as to the minimum training required for the addition
of an instrument rating to a private or commercial pilot
certificate.
Maintaining the Instrument Rating
Once you hold the instrument rating, you may not act as pilot-
in-command under IFR or in weather conditions less than the
minimums prescribed for VFR, unless you meet the recent
flight experience requirements outlined in 14 CFR part 61.
These procedures must be accomplished within the preceding
6 months and include six instrument approaches, holding
procedures, and intercepting and tracking courses through the
use of navigation systems. If you do not meet the experience
requirements during these 6 months, you have another 6
months to meet these minimums. If the requirements are
still not met, you must pass an instrument proficiency check,
which is an inflight evaluation by a qualified instrument
flight instructor using tasks outlined in the instrument rating
practical test standards (PTS).
The instrument currency requirements must be accomplished
under actual or simulated instrument conditions. You may log
instrument flight time during the time for which you control
the aircraft solely by reference to the instruments. This can
be accomplished by wearing a view-limiting device, such as
a hood, flying an approved flight-training device, or flying
in actual IMC.
It takes only one harrowing experience to clarify the
distinction between minimum practical knowledge and a
thorough understanding of how to apply the procedures and
techniques used in instrument flight. Your instrument training
is never complete; it is adequate when you have absorbed
every foreseeable detail of knowledge and skill to ensure a
solution will be available if and when you need it.
Preface....................................................................iii
Acknowledgments ..................................................v
Introduction ...........................................................vii
Is an Instrument Rating Necessary? ............................vii
Instrument Rating Requirements .................................vii
Training for the Instrument Rating ..............................vii
Maintaining the Instrument Rating.............................viii
Table of Contents ..................................................ix
Chapter 1
The National Airspace System ...........................1-1
Introduction ....................................................................1-1
Airspace Classification ...............................................1-2
Special Use Airspace ..................................................1-2
Federal Airways .........................................................1-4
Other Routing .............................................................1-5
IFR En Route Charts ......................................................1-6
Airport Information ....................................................1-6
Charted IFR Altitudes ................................................1-6
Navigation Features ....................................................1-7
Types of NAVAIDs ................................................1-7
Identifying Intersections .........................................1-7
Other Route Information .......................................1-10
Weather Information and Communication
Features .................................................................1-10
New Technologies .......................................................1-10
Terminal Procedures Publications ...............................1-12
Departure Procedures ...............................................1-12
Standard Terminal Arrival Routes ...........................1-12
Instrument Approach Procedure Charts ......................1-12
Margin Identification ................................................1-12
The Pilot Briefing .....................................................1-16
The Plan View ..........................................................1-16
Terminal Arrival Area (TAA) ......................................1-18
Course Reversal Elements in Plan View and
Profile View ..............................................................1-20
Procedure Turns ....................................................1-20
Holding in Lieu of Procedure Turn ......................1-20
Teardrop Procedure ..............................................1-21
The Profile View ...................................................1-21
Landing Minimums ..................................................1-23
Airport Sketch /Airport Diagram .............................1-27
Inoperative Components...........................................1-27
RNAV Instrument Approach Charts ........................1-30
Chapter 2
The Air Traffic Control System ...........................2-1
Introduction ....................................................................2-1
Communication Equipment ...........................................2-2
Navigation/Communication Equipment .....................2-2
Radar and Transponders .............................................2-3
Mode C (Altitude Reporting) ..................................2-3
Communication Procedures ...........................................2-4
Communication Facilities ..............................................2-4
Flight Service Stations (FSS) .....................................2-4
ATC Towers ...............................................................2-5
Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON) .........2-6
Tower En Route Control (TEC) .................................2-7
Air Route Traffic Control Center (ARTCC) ..............2-7
Center Approach/Departure Control ..........................2-7
ATC Inflight Weather Avoidance Assistance ..............2-11
ATC Radar Weather Displays ..................................2-11
Weather Avoidance Assistance ................................2-11
Approach Control Facility ...........................................2-12
Approach Control Advances ........................................2-12
Precision Runway Monitor (PRM) ..........................2-12
PRM Radar ...........................................................2-12
PRM Benefits ........................................................2-13
Control Sequence .........................................................2-13
Letters of Agreement (LOA) ....................................2-14
Chapter 3
Human Factors ....................................................3-1
Introduction ....................................................................3-1
Sensory Systems for Orientation ...................................3-2
Eyes ............................................................................3-2
Vision Under Dim and Bright Illumination ............3-3
Table of Contents
Ears .............................................................................3-4
Nerves .........................................................................3-5
Illusions Leading to Spatial Disorientation ....................3-5
Vestibular Illusions ....................................................3-5
The Leans ................................................................3-5
Coriolis Illusion ......................................................3-6
Graveyard Spiral .....................................................3-6
Somatogravic Illusion .............................................3-6
Inversion Illusion ....................................................3-6
Elevator Illusion ......................................................3-6
Visual Illusions ...........................................................3-7
False Horizon ..........................................................3-7
Autokinesis .............................................................3-7
Postural Considerations .................................................3-7
Demonstration of Spatial Disorientation .......................3-7
Climbing While Accelerating .....................................3-8
Climbing While Turning ............................................3-8
Diving While Turning ................................................3-8
Tilting to Right or Left ...............................................3-8
Reversal of Motion .....................................................3-8
Diving or Rolling Beyond the Vertical Plane ............3-8
Coping with Spatial Disorientation ................................3-8
Optical Illusions .............................................................3-9
Runway Width Illusion ..............................................3-9
Runway and Terrain Slopes Illusion ..........................3-9
Featureless Terrain Illusion ........................................3-9
Water Refraction ........................................................3-9
Haze ............................................................................3-9
Fog ..............................................................................3-9
Ground Lighting Illusions ..........................................3-9
How To Prevent Landing Errors Due to
Optical Illusions .............................................................3-9
Chapter 4
Aerodynamic Factors ..........................................4-1
Introduction ....................................................................4-1
The Wing ....................................................................4-2
Review of Basic Aerodynamics .....................................4-2
The Four Forces..........................................................4-2
Lift ..........................................................................4-2
Weight .....................................................................4-3
Thrust ......................................................................4-3
Drag ........................................................................4-3
Newton’s First Law, the Law of Inertia .....................4-4
Newton’s Second Law, the Law of Momentum.........4-4
Newton’s Third Law, the Law of Reaction ................4-4
Atmosphere ....................................................................4-4
Layers of the Atmosphere ..........................................4-5
International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) ..................4-5
Pressure Altitude .....................................................4-5
Density Altitude ......................................................4-6
Lift ..................................................................................4-6
Pitch/Power Relationship ...........................................4-6
Drag Curves ...................................................................4-6
Regions of Command .................................................4-7
Control Characteristics ...........................................4-7
Speed Stability ............................................................4-8
Normal Command ..................................................4-8
Reversed Command ................................................4-8
Trim ................................................................................4-8
Slow-Speed Flight ..........................................................4-8
Small Airplanes ..........................................................4-9
Large Airplanes ........................................................4-10
Climbs ..........................................................................4-10
Acceleration in Cruise Flight ...................................4-10
Turns ............................................................................4-10
Rate of Turn..............................................................4-11
Radius of Turn ..........................................................4-11
Coordination of Rudder and Aileron Controls .........4-11
Load Factor ..................................................................4-12
Icing .............................................................................4-13
Types of Icing ..............................................................4-13
Structural Icing .........................................................4-13
Induction Icing .........................................................4-13
Clear Ice ...................................................................4-13
Rime Ice ...................................................................4-14
Mixed Ice ..................................................................4-14
General Effects of Icing on Airfoils .........................4-14
Piper PA-34-200T (Des Moines, Iowa) ................4-16
Tailplane Stall Symptoms ........................................4-16
Propeller Icing ..........................................................4-16
Effects of Icing on Critical Aircraft Systems ...........4-16
Flight Instruments .................................................4-16
Stall Warning Systems ..........................................4-17
Windshields ..........................................................4-17
Antenna Icing ...........................................................4-17
Summary ..................................................................4-17
Chapter 5
Flight Instruments ...............................................5-1
Introduction ....................................................................5-1
Pitot/Static Systems .......................................................5-2
Static Pressure ............................................................5-2
Blockage of the Pitot-Static System ...........................5-2
Blocked Pitot System ..............................................5-2
Blocked Static System ............................................5-3
Effects of Flight Conditions ....................................5-3
Pitot/Static Instruments ..................................................5-3
Sensitive Altimeter .....................................................5-3
Principle of Operation .............................................5-3
Altimeter Errors ......................................................5-4
Cold Weather Altimeter Errors ...............................5-5