ICAO Cold Temperature Error Table ........................5-5
Nonstandard Pressure on an Altimeter ...................5-6
Altimeter Enhancements (Encoding) .....................5-7
Reduced Vertical Separation Minimum (RVSM) ..5-7
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) ...................................5-8
Dynamic Pressure Type Instruments .............................5-8
Airspeed Indicator (ASI) ............................................5-8
Types of Airspeed ...................................................5-9
Airspeed Color Codes ...........................................5-10
Magnetism ....................................................................5-10
The Basic Aviation Magnetic Compass ..................5-10
Magnetic Compass Overview ...............................5-10
Magnetic Compass Errors .....................................5-12
The Vertical Card Magnetic Compass .....................5-15
The Flux Gate Compass System ..............................5-15
Remote Indicating Compass .....................................5-15
Gyroscopic Systems .....................................................5-16
Power Sources .........................................................5-17
Pneumatic Systems ..............................................5-17
Vacuum Pump Systems ........................................5-17
Electrical Systems .................................................5-17
Gyroscopic Instruments ...............................................5-19
Attitude Indicators ....................................................5-19
Heading Indicators ...................................................5-19
Turn Indicators .........................................................5-20
Turn-and-Slip Indicator ........................................5-20
Turn Coordinator ..................................................5-21
Flight Support Systems ................................................5-22
Attitude and Heading Reference System (AHRS) ...5-22
Air Data Computer (ADC) .......................................5-22
Analog Pictorial Displays ............................................5-23
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) .......................5-23
Attitude Direction Indicator (ADI) ..........................5-23
Flight Director System (FDS) ..................................5-23
Integrated Flight Control System ............................5-25
Autopilot Systems .................................................5-25
Flight Management Systems (FMS) ............................5-26
Electronic Flight Instrument Systems ......................5-27
Primary Flight Display (PFD) ......................................5-27
Synthetic Vision .......................................................5-28
Multi-Function Display (MFD) ................................5-28
Advanced Technology Systems ...................................5-28
Automatic Dependent Surveillance—Broadcast
(ADS-B) ...................................................................5-28
Safety Systems .............................................................5-29
Radio Altimeters.......................................................5-29
Traffic Advisory Systems ........................................5-29
Traffic Information System ..................................5-29
Traffic Alert Systems ...........................................5-30
Traffic Avoidance Systems ...................................5-30
Terrain Alerting Systems .....................................5-34
Required Navigation Instrument System Inspection ...5-36
Systems Preflight Procedures ...................................5-36
Before Engine Start ..................................................5-36
After Engine Start .....................................................5-37
Taxiing and Takeoff .................................................5-37
Engine Shut Down ...................................................5-38
Chapter 6, Section I
Airplane Attitude Instrument Flying Using
Analog Instrumentation ......................................6-1
Introduction ....................................................................6-1
Learning Methods ..........................................................6-2
Attitude Instrument Flying Using the Control and
Performance Method .................................................6-2
Control Instruments ...............................................6-2
Performance Instruments .......................................6-2
Navigation Instruments ..........................................6-2
Procedural Steps in Using Control
and Performance .....................................................6-2
Aircraft Control During Instrument Flight .............6-3
Attitude Instrument Flying Using the Primary and
Supporting Method .....................................................6-4
Pitch Control ...........................................................6-4
Bank Control ...........................................................6-7
Power Control .........................................................6-8
Trim Control ...........................................................6-8
Airplane Trim .........................................................6-8
Helicopter Trim ....................................................6-10
Example of Primary and Support Instruments .........6-10
Fundamental Skills.......................................................6-10
Instrument Cross-Check ...........................................6-10
Common Cross-Check Errors ...............................6-11
Instrument Interpretation ..........................................6-13
Chapter 6, Section II
Airplane Attitude Instrument Flying Using an
Electronic Flight Display...................................6-15
Introduction ..................................................................6-15
Learning Methods ........................................................6-16
Control and Performance Method ............................6-18
Control Instruments ..............................................6-18
Performance Instruments ......................................6-19
Navigation Instruments .........................................6-19
The Four-Step Process Used to Change Attitude .....6-19
Establish ................................................................6-19
Trim ......................................................................6-20
Cross-Check ..........................................................6-20
Adjust ....................................................................6-20
Applying the Four-Step Process ...............................6-20
Pitch Control .........................................................6-20
Bank Control .........................................................6-20
Power Control .......................................................6-21
Attitude Instrument Flying—Primary and
Supporting Method ...................................................6-21
Pitch Control .........................................................6-22
Straight-and-Level Flight ......................................6-22
Primary Pitch ........................................................6-22
Primary Bank ........................................................6-23
Primary Yaw .........................................................6-23
Primary Power ......................................................6-24
Fundamental Skills of Attitude Instrument Flying ......6-24
Instrument Cross-Check ...........................................6-24
Scanning Techniques ...................................................6-24
Selected Radial Cross-Check ...................................6-24
Starting the Scan ...................................................6-24
Trend Indicators ....................................................6-26
Common Errors ............................................................6-27
Fixation .....................................................................6-27
Omission ...................................................................6-28
Emphasis ..................................................................6-28
Chapter 7, Section I
Airplane Basic Flight Maneuvers Using
Analog Instrumentation ......................................7-1
Introduction ....................................................................7-1
Straight-and-Level Flight ...............................................7-2
Pitch Control ..............................................................7-2
Attitude Indicator ....................................................7-2
Altimeter .................................................................7-3
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) ...............................7-4
Airspeed Indicator (ASI) ........................................7-6
Bank Control ..............................................................7-6
Attitude Indicator ....................................................7-6
Heading Indicator ...................................................7-7
Turn Coordinator ....................................................7-7
Turn-and-Slip Indicator (Needle and Ball) .............7-8
Power Control ............................................................7-8
Power Settings ........................................................7-9
Airspeed Changes in Straight-and-Level Flight ...7-11
Trim Technique ........................................................7-12
Common Errors in Straight-and-Level Flight .........7-12
Pitch ......................................................................7-12
Heading .................................................................7-13
Power ....................................................................7-13
Trim ......................................................................7-13
Straight Climbs and Descents ......................................7-14
Climbs ......................................................................7-14
Entry .....................................................................7-14
Leveling Off ..........................................................7-16
Descents....................................................................7-16
Entry .....................................................................7-17
Leveling Off ..........................................................7-17
Common Errors in Straight Climbs and Descents....7-17
Turns ............................................................................7-19
Standard Rate Turns .................................................7-19
Turns to Predetermined Headings ............................7-20
Timed Turns .............................................................7-21
Compass Turns .........................................................7-21
Steep Turns ...............................................................7-22
Climbing and Descending Turns ..............................7-24
Change of Airspeed During Turns ...........................7-24
Common Errors in Turns ..........................................7-25
Pitch ......................................................................7-25
Bank ......................................................................7-25
Power ....................................................................7-26
Trim ......................................................................7-26
Errors During Compass Turns ..............................7-26
Approach to Stall .........................................................7-26
Unusual Attitudes and Recoveries ...............................7-26
Recognizing Unusual Attitudes ................................7-27
Recovery from Unusual Attitudes ............................7-27
Nose-High Attitudes .................................................7-27
Nose-Low Attitudes .................................................7-28
Common Errors in Unusual Attitudes ......................7-28
Instrument Takeoff .......................................................7-29
Common Errors in Instrument Takeoffs ..................7-29
Basic Instrument Flight Patterns ..................................7-30
Racetrack Pattern ......................................................7-30
Procedure Turn .........................................................7-30
Standard 45° Procedure Turn ...................................7-30
80/260 Procedure Turn .............................................7-31
Teardrop Patterns .....................................................7-31
Circling Approach Patterns ......................................7-32
Pattern I .................................................................7-32
Pattern II ...............................................................7-32
Chapter 7, Section II
Airplane Basic Flight Maneuvers Using an
Electronic Flight Display...................................7-33
Introduction ..................................................................7-33
Straight-and-Level Flight .............................................7-34
Pitch Control ............................................................7-34
Attitude Indicator ..................................................7-34
Altimeter ...............................................................7-36
Partial Panel Flight ...............................................7-36
VSI Tape ...............................................................7-36
Airspeed Indicator (ASI) ......................................7-37
Bank Control ............................................................7-37
Attitude Indicator ..................................................7-37
Horizontal Situation Indicator (HSI) ....................7-38
Heading Indicator .................................................7-38
Turn Rate Indicator ...............................................7-38
Slip/Skid Indicator ................................................7-39
Power Control ..........................................................7-39
Power Settings ......................................................7-39
Airspeed Changes in Straight-and-Level Flight ...7-40
Trim Technique ........................................................7-43
Common Errors in Straight-and-Level Flight ..........7-43
Pitch ......................................................................7-43
Heading .................................................................7-44
Power ....................................................................7-45
Trim ......................................................................7-45
Straight Climbs and Descents ......................................7-46
Entry .........................................................................7-46
Constant Airspeed Climb From
Cruise Airspeed ....................................................7-46
Constant Airspeed Climb from
Established Airspeed ............................................7-47
Constant Rate Climbs ...........................................7-47
Leveling Off ..........................................................7-48
Descents....................................................................7-49
Entry .........................................................................7-49
Leveling Off ..........................................................7-50
Common Errors in Straight Climbs and Descents....7-50
Turns ............................................................................7-51
Standard Rate Turns .................................................7-51
Establishing A Standard Rate Turn ......................7-51
Common Errors ....................................................7-51
Turns to Predetermined Headings ............................7-52
Timed Turns .............................................................7-53
Compass Turns .........................................................7-53
Steep Turns ...............................................................7-53
Unusual Attitude Recovery Protection .................7-55
Common Errors Leading to Unusual Attitudes ....7-58
Instrument Takeoff .......................................................7-60
Common Errors in Instrument Takeoffs ..................7-61
Basic Instrument Flight Patterns ..................................7-61
Chapter 8
Helicopter Attitude Instrument Flying ...............8-1
Introduction ....................................................................8-1
Flight Instruments ..........................................................8-2
Instrument Flight ............................................................8-2
Instrument Cross-Check .............................................8-2
Instrument Interpretation ............................................8-3
Aircraft Control ..........................................................8-3
Straight-and-Level Flight ...............................................8-3
Pitch Control ..............................................................8-3
Attitude Indicator ....................................................8-3
Altimeter .................................................................8-4
Vertical Speed Indicator (VSI) ...............................8-5
Airspeed Indicator ..................................................8-5
Bank Control ..............................................................8-5
Attitude Indicator ....................................................8-5
Heading Indicator ...................................................8-6
Turn Indicator .........................................................8-7
Common Errors During Straight-and-Level Flight ....8-7
Power Control During Straight-and-Level Flight ......8-7
Common Errors During Airspeed Changes..............8-10
Straight Climbs (Constant Airspeed an
Constant Rate) ..............................................................8-10
Entry .........................................................................8-10
Level Off ..................................................................8-12
Straight Descents (Constant Airspeed and
Constant Rate) ..............................................................8-12
Entry .........................................................................8-12
Level Off ..................................................................8-13
Common Errors During Straight Climbs
and Descents .............................................................8-13
Turns ............................................................................8-13
Turn to a Predetermined Heading ............................8-13
Timed Turns .............................................................8-13
Change of Airspeed in Turns....................................8-14
Compass Turns .........................................................8-15
30° Bank Turn.......................................................8-15
Climbing and Descending Turns ..............................8-15
Common Errors During Turns .................................8-15
Unusual Attitudes .........................................................8-16
Common Errors During Unusual
Attitude Recoveries ..................................................8-16
Emergencies .................................................................8-16
Autorotations ............................................................8-17
Common Errors During Autorotations .................8-17
Servo Failure ............................................................8-17
Instrument Takeoff .......................................................8-17
Common Errors During Instrument Takeoffs ..........8-18
Changing Technology ..................................................8-18
Chapter 9
Navigation Systems ............................................9-1
Introduction ....................................................................9-1
Basic Radio Principles ...................................................9-2
How Radio Waves Propagate .....................................9-2
Ground Wave ..........................................................9-2
Sky Wave ................................................................9-2
Space Wave ............................................................9-2
Disturbances to Radio Wave Reception .....................9-3
Traditional Navigation Systems .....................................9-3
Nondirectional Radio Beacon (NDB) ........................9-3
NDB Components ...................................................9-3
ADF Components ...................................................9-3
Function of ADF .....................................................9-4
Operational Errors of ADF .....................................9-8
Very High Frequency Omnidirectional
Range (VOR) ..............................................................9-8
VOR Components .................................................9-10
Function of VOR ..................................................9-11
VOR Operational Errors .......................................9-14
VOR Accuracy ......................................................9-16
VOR Receiver Accuracy Check ...........................9-16
VOR Test Facility (VOT) .....................................9-16
Certified Checkpoints ...........................................9-16
Distance Measuring Equipment (DME) ...................9-17
DME Components ................................................9-17
Function of DME ..................................................9-17
DME Arc ..............................................................9-17
Intercepting Lead Radials .....................................9-18
DME Errors ..........................................................9-19
Area Navigation (RNAV) ........................................9-19
VOR/DME RNAV ................................................9-22
VOR/DME RNAV Components ..........................9-23
Function of VOR/DME RNAV ............................9-23
VOR/DME RNAV Errors .....................................9-24
Advanced Technologies ...............................................9-24
Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS)............9-24
Global Positioning System (GPS) ............................9-25
GPS Components ..................................................9-25
Function of GPS ...................................................9-26
GPS Substitution ...................................................9-27
GPS Substitution for ADF or DME ......................9-27
To Determine Aircraft Position Over a
DME Fix ...............................................................9-27
To Fly a DME Arc ................................................9-27
To Navigate TO or FROM an NDB/Compass
Locator ..................................................................9-28
To Determine Aircraft Position Over an NDB/
Compass Locator ..................................................9-28
To Determine Aircraft Position Over a Fix
Made up of an NDB/Compass Locator Bearing
Crossing a VOR/LOC Course ..............................9-28
To Hold Over an NDB/Compass Locator: ...........9-28
IFR Flight Using GPS ...........................................9-28
GPS Instrument Approaches .................................9-29
Departures and Instrument Departure
Procedures (DPs) ..................................................9-31
GPS Errors ............................................................9-31
System Status ........................................................9-31
GPS Familiarization ..............................................9-31
Differential Global Positioning Systems (DGPS) ....9-32
Wide Area Augmentation System (WAAS) ............9-32
General Requirements ..........................................9-32
Instrument Approach Capabilities ........................9-32
Local Area Augmentation System (LAAS) .............9-33
Inertial Navigation System (INS) .............................9-34
INS Components ...................................................9-34
INS Errors .............................................................9-34
Instrument Approach Systems .....................................9-35
Instrument Landing Systems (ILS) ..........................9-35
ILS Components ...................................................9-35
Approach Lighting Systems (ALS) ..........................9-38
ILS Airborne Components ....................................9-38
ILS Function .............................................................9-40
ILS Errors .................................................................9-40
Marker Beacons ....................................................9-40
Operational Errors ................................................9-42
Simplified Directional Facility (SDF) ......................9-42
Localizer Type Directional Aid (LDA) ....................9-43
Microwave Landing System (MLS) .........................9-43
Approach Azimuth Guidance ...............................9-43
Required Navigation Performance ...............................9-44
Flight Management Systems (FMS) ............................9-44
Function of FMS ......................................................9-46
Head-Up Display (HUD) .............................................9-46
Radar Navigation (Ground-Based) ..............................9-46
Functions of Radar Navigation.................................9-47
Airport Surface Detection Equipment ..................9-48
Radar Limitations .....................................................9-48
Chapter 10
IFR Flight ............................................................10-1
Introduction ..................................................................10-1
Sources of Flight Planning Information .......................10-2
Aeronautical Information Manual (AIM).................10-2
Airport/Facility Directory (A/FD) ............................10-2
Notices to Airmen Publication (NTAP) ...................10-2
POH/AFM ................................................................10-2
IFR Flight Plan .............................................................10-2
Filing in Flight ..........................................................10-2
Cancelling IFR Flight Plans .....................................10-3
Clearances ....................................................................10-3
Examples ..................................................................10-4
Clearance Separations ..............................................10-4
Departure Procedures (DPs) ........................................10-5
Obstacle Departure Procedures (ODP).....................10-5
Standard Instrument Departures ...............................10-5
Radar-Controlled Departures ...................................10-5
Departures From Airports Without an Operating
Control Tower ..........................................................10-7
En Route Procedures ....................................................10-7
ATC Reports ............................................................10-7
Position Reports .......................................................10-7
Additional Reports ...................................................10-7
Planning the Descent and Approach ........................10-8
Standard Terminal Arrival Routes (STARs) ............10-9
Substitutes for Inoperative or Unusable
Components ............................................................10-10
Holding Procedures ....................................................10-10
Standard Holding Pattern (No Wind) .....................10-10
Standard Holding Pattern (With Wind) ..................10-10
Holding Instructions ...............................................10-10
Standard Entry Procedures .....................................10-11
Time Factors ...........................................................10-12
DME Holding .........................................................10-13
Approaches ................................................................10-13
Compliance With Published Standard Instrument
Approach Procedures .............................................10-13
Instrument Approaches to Civil Airports ...............10-13
Approach to Airport Without an Operating
Control Tower .....................................................10-13
Approach to Airport With an Operating
Tower, With No Approach Control ....................10-15
Approach to an Airport With an Operating
Tower, With an Approach Control .....................10-15
Radar Approaches ..................................................10-15
Radar Monitoring of Instrument Approaches ........10-18
Timed Approaches From a Holding Fix.................10-18
Approaches to Parallel Runways ............................10-20
Side-Step Maneuver ...............................................10-20
Circling Approaches ...............................................10-20
IAP Minimums .......................................................10-21
Missed Approaches ................................................10-21
Landing ...................................................................10-22
Instrument Weather Flying ........................................10-22
Flying Experience...................................................10-22
Recency of Experience .......................................10-22
Airborne Equipment and Ground Facilities ........10-22
Weather Conditions ................................................10-22
Turbulence ..........................................................10-22
Structural Icing ...................................................10-23
Fog ......................................................................10-24
Volcanic Ash ......................................................10-24
Thunderstorms ....................................................10-24
Wind Shear .........................................................10-25
VFR-On-Top ..........................................................10-26
VFR Over-The-Top ................................................10-26
Conducting an IFR Flight ..........................................10-26
Preflight ..................................................................10-26
Departure ................................................................10-31
En Route .................................................................10-32
Arrival ....................................................................10-33
Chapter 11
Emergency Operations .....................................11-1
Introduction ..................................................................11-1
Unforecast Adverse Weather .......................................11-2
Inadvertent Thunderstorm Encounter .......................11-2
Inadvertent Icing Encounter .....................................11-2
Precipitation Static ...................................................11-3
Aircraft System Malfunctions ......................................11-3
Electronic Flight Display Malfunction .....................11-4
Alternator/Generator Failure ....................................11-4
Techniques for Electrical Usage...............................11-5
Master Battery Switch ..........................................11-5
Operating on the Main Battery .............................11-5
Loss of Alternator/Generator for Electronic Flight
Instrumentation .........................................................11-5
Techniques for Electrical Usage...............................11-6
Standby Battery ....................................................11-6
Operating on the Main Battery .............................11-6
Analog Instrument Failure ...........................................11-7
Pneumatic System Failure ............................................11-7
Pitot/Static System Failure ...........................................11-8
Communication/Navigation System Malfunction .......11-8
GPS Nearest Airport Function .....................................11-9
Nearest Airports Using the PFD ...............................11-9
Additional Information for a Specific Airport ....11-10
Nearest Airports Using the MFD ...........................11-10
Navigating the MFD Page Groups .....................11-10
Nearest Airport Page Group ...............................11-10
Nearest Airports Page Soft Keys ........................11-10
Situational Awareness ................................................11-11
Traffic Avoidance ...................................................11-12
Appendix A ..........................................................A-1
Clearance Shorthand
Appendix B ..........................................................B-1
Instrument Training Lesson Guide
Glossary ..............................................................G-1
Index ......................................................................I-1