Introduction
The Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge provides
basic knowledge for the student pilot learning to fly, as well
as pilots seeking advanced pilot certification. For detailed
information on a variety of specialized flight topics, see
specific Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) handbooks
and Advisory Circulars (ACs).
This chapter offers a brief history of flight, introduces the
history and role of the FAA in civil aviation, FAA regulations
and standards, government references and publications,
eligibility for pilot certificates, available routes to flight
instruction, the role of the Certificated Flight Instructor (CFI)
and Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) in flight training,
Practical Test Standards (PTS), and new, industry-developed
Airman Certification Standards (ACS) framework that will
eventually replace the PTS.
Introduction
To Flying
Chapter 1
Figure 1-2. Glider from 1852 by Sir George Cayley, British aviator
(1773–1857).
Figure 1-1. Leonardo da Vinci’s ornithopter wings.
History of Flight
From prehistoric times, humans have watched the flight of
birds, and longed to imitate them, but lacked the power to do
so. Logic dictated that if the small muscles of birds can lift
them into the air and sustain them, then the larger muscles
of humans should be able to duplicate the feat. No one knew
about the intricate mesh of muscles, sinew, heart, breathing
system, and devices not unlike wing flaps, variable-camber
and spoilers of the modern airplane that enabled a bird to
fly. Still, thousands of years and countless lives were lost in
attempts to fly like birds.
The identity of the first “bird-men” who fitted themselves
with wings and leapt off of cliffs in an effort to fly are lost in
time, but each failure gave those who wished to fly questions
that needed to be answered. Where had the wing flappers
gone wrong? Philosophers, scientists, and inventors offered
solutions, but no one could add wings to the human body
and soar like a bird. During the 1500s, Leonardo da Vinci
filled pages of his notebooks with sketches of proposed
flying machines, but most of his ideas were flawed because
he clung to the idea of birdlike wings. [Figure 1-1 ] By
1655, mathematician, physicist, and inventor Robert Hooke
concluded that the human body does not possess the strength
to power artificial wings. He believed human flight would
require some form of artificial propulsion.
The quest for human flight led some practitioners in another
direction. In 1783, the first manned hot air balloon, crafted
by Joseph and Etienne Montgolfier, flew for 23 minutes.
Ten days later, Professor Jacques Charles flew the first gas
balloon. A madness for balloon flight captivated the public’s
imagination and for a time flying enthusiasts turned their
expertise to the promise of lighter-than-air flight. But for
all its majesty in the air, the balloon was little more than a
billowing heap of cloth capable of no more than a one-way,
downwind journey.
Balloons solved the problem of lift, but that was only one of
the problems of human flight. The ability to control speed and
direction eluded balloonists. The solution to that problem lay
in a child’s toy familiar to the East for 2,000 years, but not
introduced to the West until the 13th century—the kite. The
kites used by the Chinese for aerial observation, to test winds
for sailing, as a signaling device, and as a toy, held many of
the answers to lifting a heavier-than-air device into the air.
One of the men who believed the study of kites unlocked
the secrets of winged flight was Sir George Cayley. Born
in England 10 years before the Mongolfier balloon flight,
Cayley spent his 84 years seeking to develop a heavier-than-
air vehicle supported by kite-shaped wings. [Figure 1-2] The
“Father of Aerial Navigation,” Cayley discovered the basic
principles on which the modern science of aeronautics is
founded; built what is recognized as the first successful flying
model; and tested the first full-size man-carrying airplane.
Figure 1-3. First flight by the Wright brothers.
Figure 1-4. Benoist airboat.
For the half-century after Cayley’s death, countless scientists,
flying enthusiasts, and inventors worked toward building
a powered flying machine. Men, such as William Samuel
Henson, who designed a huge monoplane that was propelled
by a steam engine housed inside the fuselage, and Otto
Lilienthal, who proved human flight in aircraft heavier than
air was practical, worked toward the dream of powered flight.
A dream turned into reality by Wilbur and Orville Wright at
Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, on December 17, 1903.
The bicycle-building Wright brothers of Dayton, Ohio, had
experimented for 4 years with kites, their own homemade
wind tunnel, and different engines to power their biplane. One
of their great achievements in flight was proving the value of
the scientific, rather than a build-it-and-see approach. Their
biplane, The Flyer, combined inspired design and engineering
with superior craftsmanship. [Figure 1-3] By the afternoon
of December 17th, the Wright brothers had flown a total of
98 seconds on four flights. The age of flight had arrived.
History of the Federal Aviation
Administration (FAA)
During the early years of manned flight, aviation was a
free for all because no government body was in place to
establish policies or regulate and enforce safety standards.
Individuals were free to conduct flights and operate aircraft
with no government oversight. Most of the early flights were
conducted for sport. Aviation was expensive and became the
playground of the wealthy. Since these early airplanes were
small, many people doubted their commercial value. One
group of individuals believed otherwise and they became
the genesis for modern airline travel.
P. E. Fansler, a Florida businessman living in St. Petersburg,
approached Tom Benoist of the Benoist Aircraft Company
in St. Louis, Missouri, about starting a flight route from St.
Petersburg across the waterway to Tampa. Benoist suggested
using his “Safety First” airboat and the two men signed an
agreement for what would become the first scheduled airline
in the United States. The first aircraft was delivered to St.
Petersburg and made the first test flight on December 31,
1913. [Figure 1-4]
A public auction decided who would win the honor of
becoming the first paying airline customer. The former
mayor of St. Petersburg, A. C. Pheil, made the winning bid
of $400.00, which secured his place in history as the first
paying airline passenger.
On January 1, 1914, the first scheduled airline flight was
conducted. The flight length was 21 miles and lasted 23
minutes due to a headwind. The return trip took 20 minutes.
The line, which was subsidized by Florida businessmen,
continued for 4 months and offered regular passage for $5.00
per person or $5.00 per 100 pounds of cargo. Shortly after the
opening of the line, Benoist added a new airboat that afforded
more protection from spray during takeoff and landing.
The routes were also extended to Manatee, Bradenton, and
Sarasota giving further credence to the idea of a profitable
commercial airline.
The St. Petersburg-Tampa Airboat Line continued throughout
the winter months with flights finally being suspended when
the winter tourist industry began to dry up. The airline
operated for only 4 months, but 1,205 passengers were
carried without injury. This experiment proved commercial
passenger airline travel was viable.
The advent of World War I offered the airplane a chance
to demonstrate its varied capabilities. It began the war as a
reconnaissance platform, but by 1918, airplanes were being
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Rock Springs
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Salt Lake City
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Elko
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Reno
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San Francisco
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New York
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Bellefonte
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Cleveland
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Bryan
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Chicago
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Iowa City
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Figure 1-6. The transcontinental airmail route ran from New York
to San Francisco.
Figure 1-5. The de Haviland DH-4 on the New York to San
Francisco inaugural route in 1921.
mass produced to serve as fighters, bombers, trainers, as well
as reconnaissance platforms.
Aviation advocates continued to look for ways to use
airplanes. Airmail service was a popular idea, but the
war prevented the Postal Service from having access to
airplanes. The War Department and Postal Service reached an
agreement in 1918. The Army would use the mail service to
train its pilots in flying cross-country. The first airmail flight
was conducted on May 15, 1918, between New York and
Washington, DC. The flight was not considered spectacular;
the pilot became lost and landed at the wrong airfield. In
August of 1918, the United States Postal Service took control
of the airmail routes and brought the existing Army airmail
pilots and their planes into the program as postal employees.
Transcontinental Air Mail Route
Airmail routes continued to expand until the Transcontinental
Mail Route was inaugurated. [Figure 1-5] This route spanned
from San Francisco to New York for a total distance of 2,612
miles with 13 intermediate stops along the way. [Figure 1-6]
On May 20, 1926, Congress passed the Air Commerce Act,
which served as the cornerstone for aviation within the
United States. This legislation was supported by leaders in
the aviation industry who felt that the airplane could not
reach its full potential without assistance from the Federal
Government in improving safety.
The Air Commerce Act charged the Secretary of Commerce
with fostering air commerce, issuing and enforcing air traffic
rules, licensing pilots, certificating aircraft, establishing
airways, and operating and maintaining aids to air navigation.
The Department of Commerce created a new Aeronautics
Branch whose primary mission was to provide oversight for the
aviation industry. In addition, the Aeronautics Branch took over
the construction and operation of the nation’s system of lighted
airways. The Postal Service, as part of the Transcontinental
Air Mail Route system, had initiated this system. The
Department of Commerce made significant advances in
aviation communications, including the introduction of radio
beacons as an effective means of navigation.
Built at intervals of approximately 10 miles apart, the
standard beacon tower was 51 feet high, and was topped
with a powerful rotating light. Below the rotating light, two
course lights pointed forward and back along the airway. The
course lights flashed a code to identify the beacon’s number.
The tower usually stood in the center of a concrete arrow
70 feet long. A generator shed, where required, stood at the
“feather” end of the arrow. [Figure 1-7]
Federal Certification of Pilots and Mechanics
The Aeronautics Branch of the Department of Commerce
began pilot certification with the first license issued on April
6, 1927. The recipient was the Chief of the Aeronautics
Branch, William P. MacCracken, Jr. [Figure 1-8] (Orville
Wright, who was no longer an active flier, had declined the
honor.) MacCracken’s license was the first issued to a pilot
by a civilian agency of the Federal Government. Some 3
months later, the Aeronautics Branch issued the first Federal
aircraft mechanic license.
Equally important for safety was the establishment of a
system of certification for aircraft. On March 29, 1927,
the Aeronautics Branch issued the first airworthiness
type certificate to the Buhl Airster CA-3, a three-place
open biplane.
In 1934, to recognize the tremendous strides made in aviation
and to display the enhanced status within the department,
the Aeronautics Branch was renamed the Bureau of Air
Commerce. [Figure 1-9] Within this time frame, the Bureau
of Air Commerce brought together a group of airlines
Figure 1-8. Standard airway beacon installation.
D-KC
Figure 1-7. A standard airway beacon tower.
Figure 1-8. The first pilot license was issued to William P.
MacCracken, Jr.
Figure 1-9. The third head of the Aeronautics Branch, Eugene
L. Vidal, is flanked by President Franklin D. Roosevelt (left) and
Secretary of Agriculture Henry A. Wallace (right). The photograph
was taken in 1933. During Vidal’s tenure, the Aeronautics Branch
was renamed the Bureau of Air Commerce on July 1, 1934. The
new name more accurately reflected the status of the organization
within the Department of Commerce.
and encouraged them to form the first three Air Traffic
Control (ATC) facilities along the established air routes.
Then in 1936, the Bureau of Air Commerce took over the
responsibilities of operating the centers and continued to
advance the ATC facilities. ATC has come a long way from
the early controllers using maps, chalkboards, and performing
mental math calculations in order to separate aircraft along
flight routes.
The Civil Aeronautics Act of 1938
In 1938, the Civil Aeronautics Act transferred the civil
aviation responsibilities to a newly created, independent
body, named the Civil Aeronautics Authority (CAA). This
Act empowered the CAA to regulate airfares and establish
new routes for the airlines to service.
President Franklin Roosevelt split the CAA into two
agencies—the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA)
and the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB). Both agencies
were still part of the Department of Commerce but the CAB
functioned independently of the Secretary of Commerce.
The role of the CAA was to facilitate ATC, certification of
airmen and aircraft, rule enforcement, and the development
of new airways. The CAB was charged with rule making to
enhance safety, accident investigation, and the economic
regulation of the airlines. Then in 1946, Congress gave the
CAA the responsibility of administering the Federal Aid