you, go to the FAA’s AME locator at www.faa.gov/pilots/
amelocator/. Medical certificates are designated as first class,
second class, or third class. Generally, first class is designed
for the airline transport pilot; second class for the commercial
pilot; and third class for the student, recreational, and private
pilot. A Student Pilot Certificate can be processed by an FAA
inspector or technician, an FAA Designated pilot examiner
(DPE), an Airman Certification Representative (ACR), or a
Certified Flight Instructor (CFI). This certificate allows an
individual who is being trained by a flight instructor to fly
alone (solo) under specific, limited circumstances and must
be carried with the student pilot while exercising solo flight
privileges. The Student Pilot Certificate is only required
when exercising solo flight privileges. The new plastic
student certificate does not have an expiration date. For
airmen who were issued a paper certificate, that certificate
will remain valid until its expiration date. A paper certificate
cannot be renewed. When the paper certificate expires, a new
application must be completed via the IACRA system, and
a new plastic certificate will be issued.
Student Pilot Solo Requirements
Once a student has accrued sufficient training and experience,
a CFI can endorse the student’s logbook to authorize limited
solo flight in a specific type (make and model) of aircraft.
A student pilot may not carry passengers, fly in furtherance
of a business, or operate an aircraft outside of the various
endorsements provided by the flight instructor. There is no
minimum aeronautical knowledge or experience requirement
for the issuance of a Student Pilot Certificate, however, the
applicant must be at least 16 years of age (14 years of age for
a pilot for glider or balloon), and they must be able to read,
speak, write and understand the English language. There are,
however, minimum aeronautical knowledge and experience
requirements for student pilots to solo.
Becoming a Pilot
The course of instruction a student pilot follows depends on
the type of certificate sought. It should include the ground and
flight training necessary to acquire the knowledge and skills
required to safely and efficiently function as a certificated
pilot in the selected category and class of aircraft. The
specific knowledge and skill areas for each category and
class of aircraft are outlined in 14 CFR part 61. Eligibility,
aeronautical knowledge, proficiency, and aeronautical
requirements can be found in 14 CFR part 61.
• Recreational Pilot, see subpart D
• Private Pilot, see subpart E
• Sport Pilot, see subpart J
The knowledge-based portion of training is obtained through
FAA handbooks such as this one, textbooks, and other sources
of training and testing materials which are available in print
form from the Superintendent of Documents, GPO, and
online at the Regulatory Support Division: www.faa.gov/
about/office_org/headquarters_offices/avs/offices/afs/afs600.
The CFI may also use commercial publications as a source
of study materials, especially for aircraft categories where
government materials are limited. A student pilot should
follow the flight instructor’s advice on what and when to
study. Planning a definite study program and following it as
closely as possible will help in scoring well on the knowledge
test. Haphazard or disorganized study habits usually result
in an unsatisfactory score.
In addition to learning aeronautical knowledge, such as the
principles of flight, a student pilot is also required to gain
skill in flight maneuvers. The selected category and class of
aircraft determines the type of flight skills and number of
flight hours to be obtained. There are four steps involved in
learning a flight maneuver:
• The CFI introduces and demonstrates flight maneuver
to the student.
• The CFI talks the student pilot through the maneuver.
• The student pilot practices the maneuver under CFI
supervision.
• The CFI authorizes the student pilot to practice the
maneuver solo.
Once the student pilot has shown proficiency in the required
knowledge areas, flight maneuvers, and accrued the required
amount of flight hours, the CFI endorses the student pilot
logbook, which allows the student pilot to take the written
and practical tests for pilot certification.
Knowledge and Skill Tests
Knowledge Tests
The knowledge test is the computer portion of the tests taken
to obtain pilot certification. The test contains questions of
the objective, multiple-choice type. This testing method
conserves the applicant's time, eliminates any element of
individual judgment in determining grades, and saves time
in scoring.
FAA Airman Knowledge Test Guides for every type of pilot
certificate address most questions you may have regarding
the knowledge test process. The guides are available on-
line (free of charge) at http://www.faa.gov/training_testing/
testing/test_guides/.
Figure 1-25. Examples of Practical Test Standards.
FAA-S-8081-12C
FAA-S-8081-14B
FAA-S-8081-8B
When To Take the Knowledge Test
The knowledge test is more meaningful to the applicant
and more likely to result in a satisfactory grade if it is taken
after beginning the flight portion of the training. Therefore,
the FAA recommends the knowledge test be taken after the
student pilot has completed a solo cross-country flight. The
operational knowledge gained by this experience can be used
to the student’s advantage in the knowledge test. The student
pilot’s CFI is the best person to determine when the applicant
is ready to take the knowledge test.
Practical Test
The FAA has developed PTS for FAA pilot certificates
and associated ratings. [Figure 1-25] In 2015, the FAA
began transitioning to the ACS approach. The ACS is
essentially an “enhanced” version of the PTS. It adds task-
specific knowledge and risk management elements to each
PTS Area of Operation and Task. The result is a holistic,
integrated presentation of specific knowledge, skills, and
risk management elements and performance metrics for each
Area of Operation and Task The ACS evaluation program
will eventually replace the PTS program for evaluating and
certifying pilots.
The practical tests are administered by FAA ASIs and DPEs.
Title 14 CFR part 61 specifies the areas of operation in which
knowledge and skill must be demonstrated by the applicant.
Since the FAA requires all practical tests be conducted in
accordance with the appropriate PTS and the policies set forth
in the Introduction section of the PTS book. The pilot applicant
should become familiar with this book during training.
The PTS book is a testing document and not intended to be
a training syllabus. An appropriately-rated flight instructor
is responsible for training the pilot applicant to acceptable
standards in all subject matter areas, procedures, and
maneuvers. Descriptions of tasks and information on how to
perform maneuvers and procedures are contained in reference
and teaching documents such as this handbook. A list of
reference documents is contained in the Introduction section
of each PTS book. Copies may obtained by:
• Downloading from the FAA website at www.faa.gov
• Purchasing print copies from the GPO, Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania, or via their official online bookstore
at www.access.gpo.gov
The flight proficiency maneuvers listed in 14 CFR part 61
are the standard skill requirements for certification. They
are outlined in the PTS as “areas of operation.” These are
phases of the practical test arranged in a logical sequence
within the standard. They begin with preflight preparation
and end with postflight procedures. Each area of operation
contains “tasks,” which are comprised of knowledge areas,
flight procedures, and/or flight maneuvers appropriate to the
area of operation. The candidate is required to demonstrate
knowledge and proficiency in all tasks for the original
issuance of all pilot certificates.
When To Take the Practical Test
14 CFR part 61 establishes the ground school and flight
experience requirements for the type of certification and
aircraft selected. However, the CFI best determines when an
applicant is qualified for the practical test. A practice practical
test is an important step in the flight training process.
The applicant will be asked to present the following
documentation:
• FAA Form 8710-1 (8710.11 for sport pilot applicants),
Application for an Airman Certificate and/or Rating,
with the flight instructor’s recommendation
• An Airman Knowledge Test Report with a
satisfactory grade
• A medical certificate (not required for glider or
balloon), a Student Pilot Certificate, and a pilot
logbook endorsed by a flight instructor for solo, solo
cross-country (airplane and rotorcraft), and for the
make and model aircraft to be used for the practical
test (driver’s license or medical certificate for sport
pilot applicants)
• The pilot log book records
• A graduation certificate from an FAA-approved school
(if applicable)
The applicant must provide an airworthy aircraft with
equipment relevant to the areas of operation required for
the practical test. He or she will also be asked to produce
and explain the:
• Aircraft’s registration certificate
• Aircraft’s airworthiness certificate
• Aircraft’s operating limitations or FAA-approved
aircraft flight manual (if required)
• Aircraft equipment list
• Required weight and balance data
• Maintenance records
• Applicable airworthiness directives (ADs)
For a detailed explanation of the required pilot maneuvers and
performance standards, refer to the PTS pertaining to the type
of certification and aircraft selected. These standards may be
downloaded free of charge from the FAA at www.faa.gov. They
may also be purchased from the Superintendent of Documents
or GPO bookstores. Most airport fixed-base operators and flight
schools carry a variety of government publications and charts,
as well as commercially published materials.
Who Administers the FAA Practical Tests?
Due to the varied responsibilities of the FSDOs, practical tests
are usually given by DPEs. An applicant should schedule the
practical test by appointment to avoid conflicts and wasted
time. A list of examiner names can be obtained from the local
FSDO. Since a DPE serves without pay from the government
for conducting practical tests and processing the necessary
reports, the examiner is allowed to charge a reasonable fee.
There is no charge for the practical test when conducted by
an FAA inspector.
Role of the Certificated Flight Instructor
To become a CFI, a pilot must meet the provisions of 14 CFR
part 61. The FAA places full responsibility for student flight
training on the shoulders of the CFI, who is the cornerstone
of aviation safety. It is the job of the flight instructor to train
the student pilot in all the knowledge areas and teach the
skills necessary for the student pilot to operate safely and
competently as a certificated pilot in the NAS. The training
includes airmanship skills, pilot judgment and decision-
making, and good operating practices.
A pilot training program depends on the quality of the
ground and flight instruction the student pilot receives. The
flight instructor must possess a thorough understanding of
the learning process, knowledge of the fundamentals of
teaching, and the ability to communicate effectively with the
student pilot. Use of a structured training program and formal
course syllabus is crucial for effective and comprehensive
flight training. It should be clear to the student in advance of
every lesson what the course of training will involve and the
criteria for successful completion. This should include the
flight instructor briefing and debriefing the student before and
after every lesson. Additionally, scenario-based training has
become the preferred method of flight instruction today. This
involves presenting the student with realistic flight scenarios
and recommended actions for mitigating risk.
Insistence on correct techniques and procedures from the
beginning of training by the flight instructor ensures that the
student pilot develops proper flying habits. Any deficiencies
in the maneuvers or techniques must immediately be
emphasized and corrected. A flight instructor serves as a role
model for the student pilot who observes the flying habits of
his or her flight instructor during flight instruction, as well
as when the instructor conducts other pilot operations. Thus,
the flight instructor becomes a model of flying proficiency
for the student who, consciously or unconsciously, attempts
to imitate the instructor. For this reason, a flight instructor
should observe recognized safety practices, as well as
regulations during all flight operations.
The student pilot who enrolls in a pilot training program
commits considerable time, effort, and expense to achieve a
pilot certificate. Students often judge the effectiveness of the
flight instructor and the success of the pilot training program
based on their ability to pass the requisite FAA practical
test. A competent flight instructor stresses to the student that
practical tests are a sampling of pilot ability compressed into
a short period of time. The goal of a flight instructor is to
train the “total” pilot.
Role of the Designated Pilot Examiner
The Designated Pilot Examiner (DPE) plays an important
role in the FAA’s mission of promoting aviation safety
by administering FAA practical tests for pilot and Flight
Instructor Certificates and associated ratings. Although
administering these tests is a responsibility of the ASI, the
FAA’s highest priority is making air travel safer by inspecting
aircraft that fly in the United States. To satisfy the need for
pilot testing and certification services, the FAA delegates
certain responsibilities to private individuals who are not
FAA employees.
Appointed in accordance with 14 CFR part 183, section
183.23, a DPE is an individual who meets the qualification
requirements of the Pilot Examiner’s Handbook, FAA Order
8710.3, and who:
• Is technically qualified
• Holds all pertinent category, class, and type ratings
for each aircraft related to their designation
• Meets requirements of 14 CFR part 61, sections 61.56,
61.57, and 61.58, as appropriate
• Is current and qualified to act as PIC of each aircraft
for which he or she is authorized
• Maintains at least a Third-Class Medical Certificate,
if required
• Maintains a current Flight Instructor Certificate, if
required
Designated to perform specific pilot certification tasks
on behalf of the FAA, a DPE may charge a reasonable
fee. Generally, a DPE’s authority is limited to accepting
applications and conducting practical tests leading to the
issuance of specific pilot certificates and/or ratings. The
majority of FAA practical tests at the private and commercial
pilot levels are administered by DPEs.
DPE candidates must have good industry reputations for
professionalism, integrity, a demonstrated willingness to
serve the public, and must adhere to FAA policies and
procedures in certification matters. The FAA expects the
DPE to administer practical tests with the same degree of
professionalism, using the same methods, procedures, and
standards as an FAA ASI.
Chapter Summary
The FAA has entered the second century of civil aviation as a
robust government organization and is taking full advantage of
technology, such as Global Positioning System (GPS) satellite
technology to enhance the safety of civil aviation. The Internet
has also become an important tool in promoting aviation safety
and providing around-the-clock resources for the aviation
community. Handbooks, regulations, standards, references,
and online courses are now available at www.faa.gov.
In keeping with the FAA’s belief that safety is a learned
behavior, the FAA offers many courses and seminars to
enhance air safety. The FAA puts the burden of instilling safe
flying habits on the flight instructor, who should follow basic
flight safety practices and procedures in every flight operation
he or she undertakes with a student pilot. Operational safety
practices include, but are not limited to, collision avoidance
procedures consisting of proper scanning techniques, use of
checklists, runway incursion avoidance, positive transfer of
controls, and workload management. These safety practices
are discussed more fully within this handbook. Safe flight also
depends on Scenario-Based Training (SBT) that teaches the
student pilot how to respond in different flight situations. The
FAA has incorporated these techniques along with decision-
making methods, such as aeronautical decision-making
(ADM), risk management, and crew resource management
(CRM), which are covered more completely in Chapter 2,
Aeronautical Decision-Making.