capabilities, etc. The scores are added and the overall score
falls into various ranges, with the range representative of
actions that a pilot imposes upon himself or herself.
Mitigating Risk
Risk assessment is only part of the equation. After
determining the level of risk, the pilot needs to mitigate the
risk. For example, the pilot flying from point A to point B (50
miles) in MVFR conditions has several ways to reduce risk:
• Wait for the weather to improve to good visual flight
rules (VFR) conditions.
• Take an instrument-rated pilot.
• Delay the flight.
• Cancel the flight.
• Drive.
One of the best ways single pilots can mitigate risk is to use
the IMSAFE checklist to determine physical and mental
readiness for flying:
1. Illness—Am I sick? Illness is an obvious pilot risk.
2. Medication—Am I taking any medicines that might
affect my judgment or make me drowsy?
3. Stress—Am I under psychological pressure from the
job? Do I have money, health, or family problems?
Stress causes concentration and performance problems.
While the regulations list medical conditions that
require grounding, stress is not among them. The pilot
should consider the effects of stress on performance.
4. Alcohol—Have I been drinking within 8 hours?
Within 24 hours? As little as one ounce of liquor, one
bottle of beer, or four ounces of wine can impair flying
skills. Alcohol also renders a pilot more susceptible
to disorientation and hypoxia.
5. Fatigue—Am I tired and not adequately rested?
Fatigue continues to be one of the most insidious
hazards to flight safety, as it may not be apparent to
a pilot until serious errors are made.
6. Emotion—Am I emotionally upset?
The PAVE Checklist
Another way to mitigate risk is to perceive hazards. By
incorporating the PAVE checklist into preflight planning,
the pilot divides the risks of flight into four categories: Pilot-
in-command (PIC), Aircraft, en Vironment, and External
pressures (PAVE) which form part of a pilot’s decision-
making process.
With the PAVE checklist, pilots have a simple way to
remember each category to examine for risk prior to each flight.
Once a pilot identifies the risks of a flight, he or she needs
to decide whether the risk, or combination of risks, can be
managed safely and successfully. If not, make the decision to
cancel the flight. If the pilot decides to continue with the flight,
he or she should develop strategies to mitigate the risks. One
way a pilot can control the risks is to set personal minimums
for items in each risk category. These are limits unique to that
individual pilot’s current level of experience and proficiency.
For example, the aircraft may have a maximum crosswind
component of 15 knots listed in the aircraft flight manual
(AFM), and the pilot has experience with 10 knots of direct
crosswind. It could be unsafe to exceed a 10 knot crosswind
component without additional training. Therefore, the 10 knot
crosswind experience level is that pilot’s personal limitation
until additional training with a certificated flight instructor
(CFI) provides the pilot with additional experience for flying
in crosswinds that exceed 10 knots.
One of the most important concepts that safe pilots
understand is the difference between what is “legal” in terms
of the regulations, and what is “smart” or “safe” in terms of
pilot experience and proficiency.
P = Pilot in Command (PIC)
The pilot is one of the risk factors in a flight. The pilot must
ask, “Am I ready for this trip?” in terms of experience,
recency, currency, physical, and emotional condition. The
IMSAFE checklist provides the answers.
A = Aircraft
What limitations will the aircraft impose upon the trip? Ask
the following questions:
• Is this the right aircraft for the flight?
• Am I familiar with and current in this aircraft? Aircraft
performance figures and the AFM are based on a brand
new aircraft flown by a professional test pilot. Keep
that in mind while assessing personal and aircraft
performance.
• Is this aircraft equipped for the flight? Instruments?
Lights? Navigation and communication equipment
adequate?
• Can this aircraft use the runways available for the trip
with an adequate margin of safety under the conditions
to be flown?
• Can this aircraft carry the planned load?
• Can this aircraft operate at the altitudes needed for the
trip?
• Does this aircraft have sufficient fuel capacity, with
reserves, for trip legs planned?
guidance? Is the terminal airport equipped with them?
Are they working? Will the pilot need to use the radio
to activate the airport lights?
• Check the Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) for closed
runways or airports. Look for runway or beacon lights
out, nearby towers, etc.
• Choose the flight route wisely. An engine failure gives
the nearby airports supreme importance.
• Are there shorter or obstructed fields at the destination
and/or alternate airports?
Airspace
• If the trip is over remote areas, is there appropriate
clothing, water, and survival gear onboard in the event
of a forced landing?
• If the trip includes flying over water or unpopulated
areas with the chance of losing visual reference to the
horizon, the pilot must be prepared to fly IFR.
• Check the airspace and any temporary flight restriction
(TFRs) along the route of flight.
Nighttime
Night flying requires special consideration.
• If the trip includes flying at night over water or
unpopulated areas with the chance of losing visual
reference to the horizon, the pilot must be prepared
to fly IFR.
• Will the flight conditions allow a safe emergency
landing at night?
• Perform preflight check of all aircraft lights, interior
and exterior, for a night flight. Carry at least two
flashlights—one for exterior preflight and a smaller
one that can be dimmed and kept nearby.
E = External Pressures
External pressures are influences external to the flight that
create a sense of pressure to complete a flight—often at the
expense of safety. Factors that can be external pressures
include the following:
• Someone waiting at the airport for the flight’s arrival
• A passenger the pilot does not want to disappoint
• The desire to demonstrate pilot qualifications
• The desire to impress someone (Probably the two most
dangerous words in aviation are “Watch this!”)
• The desire to satisfy a specific personal goal (“get-
home-itis,” “get-there-itis,” and “let’s-go-itis”)
• The pilot’s general goal-completion orientation
• Does the fuel quantity delivered match the fuel
quantity ordered?
V = EnVironment
Weather
Weather is a major environmental consideration. Earlier it was
suggested pilots set their own personal minimums, especially
when it comes to weather. As pilots evaluate the weather for
a particular flight, they should consider the following:
• What is the current ceiling and visibility? In
mountainous terrain, consider having higher
minimums for ceiling and visibility, particularly if
the terrain is unfamiliar.
• Consider the possibility that the weather may be
different than forecast. Have alternative plans and
be ready and willing to divert, should an unexpected
change occur.
• Consider the winds at the airports being used and the
strength of the crosswind component.
• If flying in mountainous terrain, consider whether
there are strong winds aloft. Strong winds in
mountainous terrain can cause severe turbulence and
downdrafts and be very hazardous for aircraft even
when there is no other significant weather.
• Are there any thunderstorms present or forecast?
• If there are clouds, is there any icing, current or
forecast? What is the temperature/dew point spread
and the current temperature at altitude? Can descent
be made safely all along the route?
• If icing conditions are encountered, is the pilot
experienced at operating the aircraft’s deicing or
anti-icing equipment? Is this equipment in good
condition and functional? For what icing conditions
is the aircraft rated, if any?
Terrain
Evaluation of terrain is another important component of
analyzing the flight environment.
• To avoid terrain and obstacles, especially at night or
in low visibility, determine safe altitudes in advance
by using the altitudes shown on VFR and IFR charts
during preflight planning.
• Use maximum elevation figures (MEFs) and other
easily obtainable data to minimize chances of an
inflight collision with terrain or obstacles.
Airport
• What lights are available at the destination and
alternate airports? VASI/PAPI or ILS glideslope
A pilot must continually make decisions about competency,
condition of health, mental and emotional state, level of fatigue,
and many other variables. For example, a pilot may be called
early in the morning to make a long flight. If a pilot has had only
a few hours of sleep and is concerned that the congestion
being experienced could be the onset of a cold, it would be
prudent to consider if the flight could be accomplished safely.
A pilot had only 4 hours of sleep the night before being asked
by the boss to fly to a meeting in a city 750 miles away. The
reported weather was marginal and not expected to improve.
After assessing fitness as a pilot, it was decided that it would
not be wise to make the flight. The boss was initially unhappy,
but later convinced by the pilot that the risks involved were
unacceptable.
Pilot
This encompasses many elements not pilot or airplane related.
It can include such factors as weather, air traffic control,
navigational aids (NAVAIDS), terrain, takeoff and landing
areas, and surrounding obstacles. Weather is one element that
can change drastically over time and distance.
A pilot was landing a small airplane just after a heavy jet had
departed a parallel runway. The pilot assumed that wake
turbulence would not be a problem since landings had been
performed under similar circumstances. Due to a combination
of prevailing winds and wake turbulence from the heavy jet
drifting across the landing runway, the airplane made a hard
landing. The pilot made an error when assessing the flight
environment.
Environment
Aircraft
A pilot will frequently base decisions on the evaluations of the
aircraft, such as performance, equipment, or airworthiness.
During a preflight, a pilot noticed a small amount of oil dripping
from the bottom of the cowling. Although the quantity of oil
seemed insignificant at the time, the pilot decided to delay the
takeoff and have a mechanic check the source of the oil.
The pilot’s good judgment was confirmed when the mechanic
found that one of the oil cooler hose fittings was loose.
External pressures
The interaction between the pilot, airplane, and the environment
is greatly influenced by the purpose of each flight operation.
The pilot must evaluate the three previous areas to decide on
the desirability of undertaking or continuing the flight as planned.
It is worth asking why the flight is being made, how critical is it to
maintain the schedule, and is the trip worth the risks?
On a ferry flight to deliver an airplane from the factory, in
marginal weather conditions, the pilot calculated the
groundspeed and determined that the airplane would arrive at
the destination with only 10 minutes of fuel remaining. The pilot
was determined to keep on schedule by trying to “stretch” the
fuel supply instead of landing to refuel. After landing with low
fuel state, the pilot realized that this could have easily resulted
in an emergency landing in deteriorating weather conditions.
This was a chance that was not worth taking to keep the
planned schedule.
Figure 2-7. The PAVE checklist.
• Emotional pressure associated with acknowledging
that skill and experience levels may be lower than a
pilot would like them to be. Pride can be a powerful
external factor!
Managing External Pressures
Management of external pressure is the single most important
key to risk management because it is the one risk factor
category that can cause a pilot to ignore all the other risk
factors. External pressures put time-related pressure on the
pilot and figure into a majority of accidents.
The use of personal standard operating procedures (SOPs) is
one way to manage external pressures. The goal is to supply a
release for the external pressures of a flight. These procedures
include but are not limited to:
• Allow time on a trip for an extra fuel stop or to make
an unexpected landing because of weather.
• Have alternate plans for a late arrival or make backup
airline reservations for must-be-there trips.
• For really important trips, plan to leave early enough
so that there would still be time to drive to the
destination, if necessary.
• Advise those who are waiting at the destination that
the arrival may be delayed. Know how to notify them
when delays are encountered.
• Manage passengers’ expectations. Make sure
passengers know that they might not arrive on a firm
schedule, and if they must arrive by a certain time,
they should make alternative plans.
• Eliminate pressure to return home, even on a casual
day flight, by carrying a small overnight kit containing
prescriptions, contact lens solutions, toiletries, or other
necessities on every flight.
The key to managing external pressure is to be ready for
and accept delays. Remember that people get delayed when
traveling on airlines, driving a car, or taking a bus. The pilot’s
goal is to manage risk, not create hazards. [Figure 2-7]
Human Factors
Why are human conditions, such as fatigue, complacency
and stress, so important in aviation? These conditions, along
with many others, are called human factors. Human factors
directly cause or contribute to many aviation accidents and
Figure 2-8. Human factors effects pilots, aviation maintenance technicians (AMTs) and air traffic control (ATC).
have been documented as a primary contributor to more than
70 percent of aircraft accidents.
Typically, human factor incidents/accidents are associated
with flight operations but recently have also become a major
concern in aviation maintenance and air traffic management
as well. [Figure 2-8] Over the past several years, the FAA has
made the study and research of human factors a top priority
by working closely with engineers, pilots, mechanics, and
ATC to apply the latest knowledge about human factors in
an effort to help operators and maintainers improve safety
and efficiency in their daily operations.
Human factors science, or human factors technologies,
is a multidisciplinary field incorporating contributions
from psychology, engineering, industrial design, statistics,
operations research, and anthropometry. It is a term that
covers the science of understanding the properties of
human capability, the application of this understanding to
the design, development and deployment of systems and
services, and the art of ensuring successful application of
human factor principles into all aspects of aviation to include
pilots, ATC, and aviation maintenance. Human factors is
often considered synonymous with CRM or maintenance
resource management (MRM) but is really much broader in
both its knowledge base and scope. Human factors involves
gathering research specific to certain situations (i.e., flight,
maintenance, stress levels, knowledge) about human abilities,
limitations, and other characteristics and applying it to tool
design, machines, systems, tasks, jobs, and environments
to produce safe, comfortable, and effective human use. The
entire aviation community benefits greatly from human
factors research and development as it helps better understand
how humans can most safely and efficiently perform their
jobs and improve the tools and systems in which they interact.
Human Behavior
Studies of human behavior have tried to determine an
individual’s predisposition to taking risks and the level of
an individual’s involvement in accidents. In 1951, a study
regarding injury-prone children was published by Elizabeth
Mechem Fuller and Helen B. Baune, of the University of
Minnesota. The study was comprised of two separate groups
of second grade students. Fifty-five students were considered
accident repeaters and 48 students had no accidents. Both
groups were from the same school of 600 and their family
demographics were similar.
The accident-free group showed a superior knowledge
of safety, was considered industrious and cooperative
with others, but were not considered physically inclined.
The accident-repeater group had better gymnastic skills,
was considered aggressive and impulsive, demonstrated
rebellious behavior when under stress, were poor losers, and
liked to be the center of attention. One interpretation of this
data—an adult predisposition to injury stems from childhood
behavior and environment—leads to the conclusion that
any pilot group should be comprised only of pilots who are
safety-conscious, industrious, and cooperative.
Clearly, this is not only an inaccurate inference, it is
impossible. Pilots are drawn from the general population and
exhibit all types of personality traits. Thus, it is important that
good decision-making skills be taught to all pilots.
Historically, the term “pilot error” has been used to describe
an accident in which an action or decision made by the
pilot was the cause or a contributing factor that led to the
accident. This definition also includes the pilot’s failure
to make a correct decision or take proper action. From a
broader perspective, the phrase “human factors related” more
aptly describes these accidents. A single decision or event
does not lead to an accident, but a series of events and the
resultant decisions together form a chain of events leading
to an outcome.
In his article “Accident-Prone Pilots,” Dr. Patrick R. Veillette
uses the history of “Captain Everyman” to demonstrate how
aircraft accidents are caused more by a chain of poor choices
rather than one single poor choice. In the case of Captain
Everyman, after a gear-up landing accident, he became
involved in another accident while taxiing a Beech 58P Baron
out of the ramp. Interrupted by a radio call from the dispatcher,
Everyman neglected to complete the fuel cross-feed check
before taking off. Everyman, who was flying solo, left the
right-fuel selector in the cross-feed position. Once aloft and
cruising, he noticed a right roll tendency and corrected with
aileron trim. He did not realize that both engines were feeding
off the left wing’s tank, making the wing lighter.
After two hours of flight, the right engine quit when
Everyman was flying along a deep canyon gorge. While he
was trying to troubleshoot the cause of the right engine’s
failure, the left engine quit. Everyman landed the aircraft on
a river sand bar but it sank into ten feet of water.
Several years later Everyman flew a de Havilland Twin
Otter to deliver supplies to a remote location. When he
returned to home base and landed, the aircraft veered sharply
to the left, departed the runway, and ran into a marsh 375
feet from the runway. The airframe and engines sustained
considerable damage. Upon inspecting the wreck, accident
investigators found the nose wheel steering tiller in the fully
deflected position. Both the after takeoff and before landing
checklists require the tiller to be placed in the neutral position.
Everyman had overlooked this item.
Now, is Everyman accident prone or just unlucky? Skipping
details on a checklist appears to be a common theme in the
preceding accidents. While most pilots have made similar
mistakes, these errors were probably caught prior to a mishap
due to extra margin, good warning systems, a sharp copilot,
or just good luck. What makes a pilot less prone to accidents?
The successful pilot possesses the ability to concentrate,
manage workloads, and monitor and perform several
simultaneous tasks. Some of the latest psychological
screenings used in aviation test applicants for their ability
to multitask, measuring both accuracy, as well as the
individual’s ability to focus attention on several subjects
simultaneously. The FAA oversaw an extensive research
study on the similarities and dissimilarities of accident-free
pilots and those who were not. The project surveyed over
4,000 pilots, half of whom had “clean” records while the
other half had been involved in an accident.
Five traits were discovered in pilots prone to having
accidents. These pilots:
• Have disdain toward rules
• Have very high correlation between accidents on their
flying records and safety violations on their driving
records
• Frequently fall into the “thrill and adventure seeking”
personality category
• Are impulsive rather than methodical and disciplined,
both in their information gathering and in the speed
and selection of actions to be taken
• Have a disregard for or tend to under utilize outside
sources of information, including copilots, flight
attendants, flight service personnel, flight instructors,
and ATC
The Decision-Making Process
An understanding of the decision-making process provides
the pilot with a foundation for developing ADM and SRM
skills. While some situations, such as engine failure, require an
immediate pilot response using established procedures, there is
usually time during a flight to analyze any changes that occur,
gather information, and assess risks before reaching a decision.
Risk management and risk intervention is much more than the
simple definitions of the terms might suggest. Risk management
and risk intervention are decision-making processes designed
to systematically identify hazards, assess the degree of risk, and
Figure 2-9. The Five Ps checklist.
THE PLAN THE PLANE THE PILOT
THE
PASSENGERS
THE
PROGRAMMING
The SRM Five “Ps” Check
determine the best course of action. These processes involve
the identification of hazards, followed by assessments of the
risks, analysis of the controls, making control decisions, using
the controls, and monitoring the results.
The steps leading to this decision constitute a decision-
making process. Three models of a structured framework
for problem-solving and decision-making are the 5P, the 3P
using PAVE, CARE and TEAM, and the DECIDE models.
They provide assistance in organizing the decision process.
All these models have been identified as helpful to the single
pilot in organizing critical decisions.
Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM)
Single-Pilot Resource Management (SRM) is about how to
gather information, analyze it, and make decisions. Learning
how to identify problems, analyze the information, and make
informed and timely decisions is not as straightforward as the
training involved in learning specific maneuvers. Learning
how to judge a situation and “how to think” in the endless
variety of situations encountered while flying out in the “real
world” is more difficult.
There is no one right answer in ADM, rather each pilot is
expected to analyze each situation in light of experience
level, personal minimums, and current physical and mental
readiness level, and make his or her own decision.
The 5 Ps Check
SRM sounds good on paper, but it requires a way for pilots
to understand and use it in their daily flights. One practical
application is called the “Five Ps (5 Ps).” [Figure 2-9] The
5 Ps consist of “the Plan, the Plane, the Pilot, the Passengers,
and the Programming.” Each of these areas consists of a set
of challenges and opportunities that every pilot encounters.
Each challenge and opportunity can substantially increase or
decrease the risk of successfully completing the flight based
on the pilot’s ability to make informed and timely decisions.
The 5 Ps are used to evaluate the pilot’s current situation at
key decision points during the flight or when an emergency
arises. These decision points include preflight, pretakeoff,
hourly or at the midpoint of the flight, pre-descent, and just
prior to the final approach fix or for VFR operations, just
prior to entering the traffic pattern.
The 5 Ps are based on the idea that pilots have essentially
five variables that impact his or her environment and forcing
him or her to make a single critical decision, or several less
critical decisions, that when added together can create a
critical outcome. These variables are the Plan, the Plane, the
Pilot, the Passengers, and the Programming. This concept
stems from the belief that current decision-making models
tended to be reactionary in nature. A change has to occur
and be detected to drive a risk management decision by the
pilot. For instance, many pilots complete risk management
sheets prior to takeoff. These form a catalog of risks
that may be encountered that day. Each of these risks is
assigned a numerical value. If the total of these numerical
values exceeds a predetermined level, the flight is altered or
cancelled. Informal research shows that while these are useful
documents for teaching risk factors, they are almost never
used outside of formal training programs. The 5P concept is
an attempt to take the information contained in those sheets
and in the other available models and use it.
The 5P concept relies on the pilot to adopt a “scheduled”
review of the critical variables at points in the flight where
decisions are most likely to be effective. For instance, the
easiest point to cancel a flight due to bad weather is before the
pilot and passengers walk out the door and load the aircraft.
So the first decision point is preflight in the flight planning
room, where all the information is readily available to make
a sound decision, and where communication and Fixed
Base Operator (FBO) services are readily available to make
alternate travel plans.
The second easiest point in the flight to make a critical safety
decision is just prior to takeoff. Few pilots have ever had
to make an “emergency takeoff.” While the point of the 5P
check is to help the pilot fly, the correct application of the 5
P before takeoff is to assist in making a reasoned go/no-go
decision based on all the information available. That decision
will usually be to “go,” with certain restrictions and changes,
but may also be a “no-go.” The key idea is that these two
points in the process of flying are critical go/no-go points on
each and every flight.
The third place to review the 5 Ps is at the midpoint of the
flight. Often, pilots may wait until the Automated Terminal
information Service (ATIS) is in range to check weather, yet,
at this point in the flight, many good options have already
passed behind the aircraft and pilot. Additionally, fatigue
and low-altitude hypoxia serve to rob the pilot of much of
his or her energy by the end of a long and tiring flight day.
This leads to a transition from a decision-making mode to an
acceptance mode on the part of the pilot. If the flight is longer
than 2 hours, the 5 P check should be conducted hourly.
The last two decision points are just prior to descent into the
terminal area and just prior to the final approach fix, or if
VFR, just prior to entering the traffic pattern as preparations
for landing commence. Most pilots execute approaches with
the expectation that they will land out of the approach every
time. A healthier approach requires the pilot to assume that
changing conditions (the 5 Ps again) will cause the pilot to
divert or execute the missed approach on every approach.
This keeps the pilot alert to all manner of conditions that
may increase risk and threaten the safe conduct of the flight.
Diverting from cruise altitude saves fuel, allows unhurried
use of the autopilot and is less reactive in nature. Diverting
from the final approach fix, while more difficult, still allows
the pilot to plan and coordinate better, rather than executing
a futile missed approach. Let’s look at a detailed discussion
of each of the Five Ps.
The Plan
The “Plan” can also be called the mission or the task. It
contains the basic elements of cross-country planning,
weather, route, fuel, publications currency, etc. The “Plan”
should be reviewed and updated several times during the
course of the flight. A delayed takeoff due to maintenance,
fast moving weather, and a short notice TFR may all radically
alter the plan. The “plan” is not only about the flight plan,
but also all the events that surround the flight and allow the
pilot to accomplish the mission. The plan is always being
updated and modified and is especially responsive to changes
in the other four remaining Ps. If for no other reason, the 5 P
check reminds the pilot that the day’s flight plan is real life
and subject to change at any time.
Obviously, weather is a huge part of any plan. The addition
of datalink weather information gives the advanced avionics
pilot a real advantage in inclement weather, but only if the
pilot is trained to retrieve and evaluate the weather in real
time without sacrificing situational awareness. And of course,
weather information should drive a decision, even if that
decision is to continue on the current plan. Pilots of aircraft
without datalink weather should get updated weather in flight
through an FSS and/or Flight Watch.
The Plane
Both the “plan” and the “plane” are fairly familiar to most
pilots. The “plane” consists of the usual array of mechanical
and cosmetic issues that every aircraft pilot, owner, or
operator can identify. With the advent of advanced avionics,
the “plane” has expanded to include database currency,
automation status, and emergency backup systems that were
unknown a few years ago. Much has been written about
single pilot IFR flight, both with and without an autopilot.
While this is a personal decision, it is just that—a decision.
Low IFR in a non-autopilot equipped aircraft may depend
on several of the other Ps to be discussed. Pilot proficiency,
currency, and fatigue are among them.
The Pilot
Flying, especially when business transportation is involved,
can expose a pilot to risks such as high altitudes, long trips
requiring significant endurance, and challenging weather.
Advanced avionics, when installed, can expose a pilot to high
stresses because of the inherent additional capabilities which
are available. When dealing with pilot risk, it is always best
to consult the “IMSAFE” checklist (see page 2-6).
The combination of late nights, pilot fatigue, and the effects
of sustained flight above 5,000 feet may cause pilots to
become less discerning, less critical of information, less
decisive, and more compliant and accepting. Just as the most
critical portion of the flight approaches (for instance a night
instrument approach, in the weather, after a 4-hour flight),
the pilot’s guard is down the most. The 5 P process helps a
pilot recognize the physiological challenges that they may
face towards the end of the flight prior to takeoff and allows
them to update personal conditions as the flight progresses.
Once risks are identified, the pilot is in a better place to
make alternate plans that lessen the effect of these factors
and provide a safer solution.
The Passengers
One of the key differences between CRM and SRM is the
way passengers interact with the pilot. The pilot of a highly
capable single-engine aircraft maintains a much more personal
relationship with the passengers as he/she is positioned within
an arm’s reach of them throughout the flight.
The necessity of the passengers to make airline connections
or important business meetings in a timely manner enters
into this pilot’s decision-making loop. Consider a flight
to Dulles Airport in which and the passengers, both close
friends and business partners, need to get to Washington,
D.C. for an important meeting. The weather is VFR all the
way to southern Virginia, then turns to low IFR as the pilot
approaches Dulles. A pilot employing the 5 P approach
might consider reserving a rental car at an airport in northern
North Carolina or southern Virginia to coincide with a
refueling stop. Thus, the passengers have a way to get to
Washington, and the pilot has an out to avoid being pressured
into continuing the flight if the conditions do not improve.